Word Count: 10,084
Author’s Declaration
This dissertation is the author’s own work and has not been submitted wholly or in part for any academic award or qualification other than that for which it is now submitted.
The word count is: 10, 084
Acknowledgements
For my family, to make you proud
Abstract
Aim: To demonstrate how the fashion industry in the UK can promote a positive representation of feminism
Method: The research was attained through a research search to scope the topic, before conducting a specific research search of secondary research papers using relevant databases.
Findings: The idealised attributes of femininity valued within the UK fashion industry are whiteness and thinness which are cultural produced and reproduced ideals of beauty. Female fashion viewers positively associate with, and internalise these ideals leading to body dissatisfaction, low-mood, negative self-perception and symptoms of eating disorders. Awareness and consciousness interrupted the social comparison and internalisation processes.
Discussion: The key themes of a) representation of women projected by the fashion industry has led to detrimental effects on, b) the identities of female viewers on personal and societal levels. This informed suggested interventions involving, c) consciousness, in terms of feminist consciousness-raising and promoting critical facility. Practical applications to young women in communities have been explored, as well as moments within the current fashion industry and wider popular that promote and discourage feminism and the implications of this will be explored in terms of a positive feminist intervention. This demonstrates that the fashion industry in the UK can promote a positive representation of feminism through overcoming stigmatisation and demonstrating how feminism can be fashionable and therefore identifiable for young women. This benefits women in communities by bringing feminist issues such as injustice and inequality into the public forum.
Introduction
My interest in this topic is sparked by the conflict of my personal values as a young feminist and my love of fashion; the aim is to answer the question posed, in that the fashion world has potential to raise a feminist voice. As a young woman experiencing feminist consciousness, I believe there is a place for fashion within feminism and that this can potentially introduce a new generation of young women to feminism and critical consciousness. I will chronologically draw upon significant feminist moments throughout fashion history to provide a contextual background, before presenting an analysis whereby the subject has been researched through a rigorous secondary research search and literature review.The findings will be analysed and presented into themes with supporting literature, and by identifying the current areas within the fashion industry that negatively affect women, I will present a case that fashion can promote a positive representation of feminism. Through using a feminist theoretical approach, literature will be explored from a position seeking equal rights for women through recognising the silencing of intersections and power differentials (Ackerly & Trew, 2010).
Feminists have conflicted with fashion throughout history, with some considering it a threat to the liberation of women through its manifestations of femininity, which are considered inherently oppressive and objectifying (Paulicelli & Wissinger, 2013).Personally, I feel conflicted by the contradictory ideals maintained within feminismregarding the politics of self-presentation; this conflict is supported by Showalter, (1995) Buckley and Fawcett (2002) and Raine, (2010). Young (1990) acknowledges a double sense of guilt endured by women who dress for the male gaze and enjoy the pleasure of their clothing.Feminists such as Scott (2005) have defended women who enjoy fashion, calling for a change in consciousness in the debate; Scott (2005) argues that views need to be re-examined for feminism to be truly representative of all women. In addition, Passerini (2007) acknowledges how the oppositional subjectivity of traditional feminine cultures, including fashion, are considereddiversions towomen’s liberation, when it is the areas of women’s own pleasuresthat the most important work on politics must be done. There is a distinction between a femininity forged by patriarchy and a womanist culture created by women; as the personal becomes the political (Paulicelli & Wissinger, 2013) “women as subjects intervene heavily [in women’s liberation and feminine culture]” (Passerini, 2007:45). I believe this is a more helpful understanding, and with this view, women can participate equally in their own culture and pleasures whilst being conscious of and opposing patriarchal oppression. Feminism and fashion are both part of women’s culture (Scott, 2005). Womenare not merely passive under a false consciousness of patriarchal feminine culture. Paulicelli and Wissinger (2013) critically point out that women can maintain a both/and approach, and fashion must be explored as a platform where gender and subjectivity are performed. Feminist criticisms of fashion view women who invest in their appearance as incapable of realising how the fashion industry can manipulate and oppress women, rather than viewing them as empowered and choosing to communicate through clothing (Raine, 2010). Through identifying this distinction, an intergenerational dialogue can be created between feminists to present feminism as relatable for young women (Fawcett & Buckley, 2000).
The feminist theoretical approach used to explore literature and research focuses on women and the raising of consciousness; this involvesviewing social practices and norms that create injustices for women critically (Ackerly & Trew, 2010). This dissertation will therefore explore how women experience the social world, focussing on catwalk projects exposed to women in the UK and their representations of women; this willallow for suggestions tom improve women’s experiences (Gundy, 2014). Consciousness raisingis important for young women in different communities, andlinks to social and community development as feminism is a critical movement for social justice (Banyard, 2010). Empowerment through critical thinking and creativity is central to feminist pedagogy (Shackelford, 1992) and fashion is a creative means with the potential to engage young women from different social intersections. Creativity can be empowering for women in different communities(Setyaningsihet al, 2012; Alese & Hassan 2011; Morrissey & Lewin, 2010), and has the potential to encourage women to think critically about oppressive patriarchal systems that lead to issues such as low self-esteem and poor body-image (Banyard, 2010). Therefore, the findings will contribute to social and community development through exploring equal rights and worth (Ledwith, 2011). I believe it is critical for positive representations of feminism to be promoted to raise awarenessof gender inequality andtherefore aid social justice; this can be achieved through using fashion as a public forum.
Historical Background: Women as visionaries – Stepping out.
I will start atthe 1920’s, at this time female designers significantly impacted fashion (Steele, 1991), significantly, Coco Chanel and Elsa Schiaparelli. This is a critical starting point as Chanel broke the mould for women; as a fashion designer, Chanel was a visionary and businesswoman (Carter-Morely, 2015); sheis the most influential designer of all time (Picardie, 2011)and created the most iconicpieces in history (Cartner-Morely, 2015). Chanelliberatedwomen through fashion by appropriating masculine power in designs thatreflected women’s desire for mobility and independence at the time (Evans & Thornton, 1991). WWI led to the changing aspirations of women; the rise of single women lead to opportunities in work and education (Dyhouse, 2010). Chanel was successful as she came of age at a time when women were developing a voice and an identity (Carter-Morley, 2015). Increasingly in the 1920’s and 1930’s, women aimed to better their lives and invested more in themselves (Dyhouse, 2010). Fashion was a means of achieving full participation and economic independence for women; it offered opportunities of expression in a male-dominated world (Evans & Thornton, 1991). Couture fashion allowed for women to become creative designers and businesswomen (Evans & Thornton, 1991) andconventional fashion offered economic independence for the less privileged (Finnegan, 1999).
First wave feminists used fashion liberate the mind through freeing the body (Radner & Smith, 2013);Chanel gave women their freedom (Anderson, 2013) through giving them back their bodies (Cartner-Morley, 2015) as her designs signified control and invulnerability (Evans & Thornton, 1991). Chanel stated “women… must also be able to move without bursting their seams” (Cartner-Morley, 2015, 1 Screen). Chanel achieved this through a new, practical silhouette that did not rely on corsets (Cartner-Morley, 2015) (Figure 1). Formerly restrictive womenswear designs were replaced by simpler styles that allowed for more movement (Kay, 1986).Chanel stated “Fashion is to do with ideas, the way we live and what is happening” (Chanel in Dixon, 2009), emphasising the political power of clothing and bodily adornment. How we dress can communicate our associations and values (Yim, 2011), and Chanel’s revolutionary designs reflected women’s desire forindependence. This demonstrates that fashion can make statements that contribute to feminisms ultimate goal of women’s equality (Cosslett & Baxter, 2013).
In contrast, Schiaparelli portrayed radically different representations of femininity. Her masquerade designs were decorative and superfluous,portraying excess and folly, rejecting the restrictions of masculine dress (Radner & Smith, 2013) (Figure 2). Glamour was fashionable and associated with luxury, power, pleasure and sexuality (Dyhouse, 2010). This was an alternative means for women to exert control through clothing; sexual dress represented a refusal of imprisoning gender expectations of femininity, allowing women to take risks and be assertive (Dyhouse, 2010). Women could demonstrate defiance, offering women alternative opportunities of expression(Evans & Thornton, 1991; Dyhouse, 2010). This offered women agency, however the image was tarnished by the coronation of Elizabeth II in the 1950’s; fashionreturned to emphasise class and elegance and glamor was disapprovedof (Dyhouse, 2010). This demonstrates the states patriarchal ideals of accepting a female monarch in a position of power, whilst maintainingwomen in a subordinate position through controlling accepted forms of femininity.
The 1960’s saw the second wave of feminism. The Women’s Liberation Movement fundamentally rejected fashion as it promoted feminine ideals (Evans & Thornton, 1989); glamour was associated with women’s objectification and the ‘youthquake’ (Dyhouse, 2010:4) dramatically changed feminine ideals with Twiggy and Jean Shrimpton portraying an innocent look(Dyhouse, 2010). Youth culture exploded and fashion became non-conformist and expressed attitudes (Okonowu, 2007). Whilst feminists sought to break out of controlled femininity, Okonowu (2007) argues that fashion became a primary means of portraying the new woman as society gravitated towards women’s liberation, with Chanel and Yves Saint Laurent embodying women’s freedom. The single girl ideal allowed women to invest in their advancement without pressure to marry (Dyhouse, 2010). They were fashionable and wore mini-skirts,proclaiming financial success (Radner & Smith, 2013). This demonstrates the growing conflict between feminism and fashion as it was seen by feminists to reinforce a patriarchal construction of femininity. However, as fashion at the time became increasingly non-conformist, it emancipatedand liberatedwomen towards confidence and a new future. The aims of fashion coincided with the aims of feminism, emphasising accomplishment and advocating for economic advancement; therefore, fashion was a means for women to achieve the goals of feminism.
The 1970’s saw radically different directions in fashion compared to the Sixties with disagreements on where fashion should go (Suterwalla, 2013). Gender debates caused tension between fashion and feminine ideals as the Women’s Rights Movement gathered force, feminists continued to proclaim that fashion reinforced oppressive femininity and stereotypical gender identities (Bernard, 2002; Thirdway, 1986). Feminists adopted anti-fashion, by rejecting fashions worn under the dominant gender ideology (Barnard, 2002). Sawchuk (1988) argued that anti-fashion was inherently feminist. However, Steele (1991) argues that amongst the clash of styles, greater freedom and choice emerged; including women wearing trouser suits and simple shift dresses. Luckett (2000) argues this expressed a more powerful feminine reflective of public life. These fashion movements liberated women through opportunities of choice and control. Female punk’semerged, with women wearing defaced prints and torn clothing representing anarchy and destruction, expressing social and gender antagonisms (Suterwalla, 2013); formerly hidden body parts were displayed, demonstrating involvement in gender politics. Suterwalla (2013) argues this was a retaliation to constructions of the inferior female body.This demonstrates the power of visual culture to represent associations with politics. Differing styles of self-presentation caused great debate.Hillman (2013) argues that while some shunned patriarchal definitions of femininityby shredding traditional feminine dress, this was an abhorrent rejection of womanhood for others. However, these feminist styles join fashion discourse, rather than breaking it(Keay, 1986). Therefore,rather than accepting anti-fashion vs fashion, this is one form of fashion against another (Scott, 2005).Gender politics reflected deep disagreements ofwomanhood during women’s liberation, and increasing choice of self-presentation reflected the changing position of women. (Suterwalla, 2013).
Later, in the 1980’s fashion got louder as it became more accessible; women controlled their image and became more confident, aspirational and sexually aware (Dyhouse, 2010).This came as the Equal Pay Act 1970 and Sexual Discrimination Act 1975 began to alter attitudes towards women in the workplace, and the pill become more available under the NHS Reorganisation Act1973,allowing women control over their lives (Dyhouse, 2010). Despite these accomplishmentsgender issues remained,andwere challenged through fashion as a political language (English, 2013). Women challenged masculine institutions as they began to enter professional employment (Dyhouse, 2010). Women based their appearance on masculinity, rejecting femininity (Evans & Thornton, 1989). This illustratedwomen’s expectations of power through power-dressing (English, 2013), and wearing masculine suits(Dyhouse, 2010). Women represented professionalism by adopting the masculine silhouette, which portrayed confidence and authority in trying to ‘break the glass ceiling’ (English, 2013). However Keay (1986) argues this feeds the myth that to be liberated, a woman must become masculine. This demonstrates the complexity of self-presentation as for some women, a feminine appearance can be hindering in positions of power (Kulsar, 2011).
Self-fashioning and choice remains politicised amongst feminists today (Hillman, 2013). McRobbie (2004) argues we are in a state of post-feminism whereby feminism has ‘passed away and is no longer needed’ (p.255), however, Banyard (2010) criticises this, arguing that gender equality is an illusion and feminism remains a ‘vital social justice movement’ (p.2).The Anna Wintour and Hillary Clinton argument highlights the complexity of feminine appearance within a patriarchal society;Vogue editor-in-chief Wintour criticising Clinton (Appendix 1) who refused to appear on Vogue’s February 2008 cover as she feared appearing too feminine during her political campaign, Clinton felt that she would be perceived as inadequate if associated with the fashion magazine (Kulsar, 2011).
Whilst I disagree with McRobbie’s (2004) idea of post-feminism and that feminism is associated with the past and ‘old, unglamorous women’ (p.255), she raises an important argument that this image encourages a dis-identification with feminism and young women. I relate to thisdis-identification through my conflicting passion for feminism and fashion; through exploring historical feminist moments within fashion it is possible to see that fashion, whilst complex and highly debated, has played a fundamental role historically within the liberation of women. Feminism can be glamorous and contemporary, with designers explicitly promotingfeminism, for exampleChanelstaged a feminist march catwalk in 2014 (Figure 3) and Elle,Whistles and Fawcett Society collaborated tofor a SS14 collection (Appendix 2). In addition, Prada described her female SS15 catwalk models as ‘strong visible fighters’, claiming “my instrument is fashion…people will look and then they will listen” (Prada in Mower, 2013).
Methods:
A search strategy method for data collection was used to collect research papers and the researcher maintained a feminist theoretical approach. A scope of databases was conducted and the following were chosen to explore; ASSIA, DAAI, Project Muse PsychNet, Sage, SC Online, Taylor and Francis, WGSN and Nelson. Initially, ‘Feminism and Fashion’ was searched in each database to determine whether the database would be appropriate depending on relevance and the number of results retrieved. This scoping also presented additional key words to be used in consequent searches. The initial inclusion and exclusion criteria applied to every search limited results to only peer-reviewed journals published within the last 10 years; meaning results were more credible and up-to-date (Comerasamy, 2012). ASSIA produced three results that were not relevant to the dissertation question, whereas Nelson provided 611 results. Through this initial scoping, it was determined that Nelson and Psychnet would be used as they provided a larger amount of results that were more relevant to the question. Furthermore, they were initially selected as Nelson is an easily accessible university database and Psychnet offers psychology literature which is a relevant discipline for answering the dissertation question.
Figure 4 demonstrates the organisation of key words used within the searches and how these were determined.
Figure 4
Fashion Industry
Positive Representation
Feminism
Fashion Messages Feminist
Catwalk/Runway Images Female
Clothing Designers Social aspects Gender
Clothing Projection Women
Popular Culture Portrayal Gender Roles
Media Perception Feminists
Models Meaning Femininity
Fashion Models Views Gender Stereotypes
Firstly, Nelson was used to search ‘catwalk representations of women’ with the inclusion/exclusion criteria stated. This produced 1 result, (which was Mears, 2010), suggesting that the wording was to narrow. However, this result was useful and used in the findings. Next, ‘catwalk fashion modelling gender’ was searched which retrieved 115 results; this was narrowed down by excluding theirrelevant topics of ‘globalisation’, ‘sexuality’ and ‘consumption’. This refined the number of results to 67, of which Mears (2008) was selected. This informed the next search which focused on positive representations of larger sized models; ‘positive views of normal sized female models’ retrieved 2, 907 results and could not be refined to a manageable amount using the databases inclusion/exclusion tools, however the first page retrieved Bian & Foxall (2013) which was relevant and used in the findings. The ranging disciplines of these findings are presented in figure 5.
Figure 5
Nelson Search Findings
Research Discipline
Mears, A. (2010) Size Zero High-End Ethnic: Cultural Production and Reproduction of Culture in Fashion Modelling, Poetics, Vol. 38, No. 1, P. 21-46 Culture, Media and Arts
Mears, A. (2008) Discipline of the Catwalk, Ethnography, Vol. 9. Iss. 4. 429-456 Sociology and Anthropology
Bian, X & Foxall, G. (2013) Will Normal-Sized Female Models in Advertisements be Viewed as Positively as Small-Sized Models, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 47, No. 314, P. 485-506 Marketing
Using Psychnet, ‘body image’ and ‘fashion’ was searched which retrieved 136 peer-reviewed results within the last 10- years; this was refined by searching within topics, which is beneficial as it helps to define the boundaries of the study’s focus (Comerasamy, 2012). The ‘dissatisfaction’ topic was selected which retrieved 18 results, includingthe findings in figure 6.
Figure 6
Psychnet Search Findings
Research Discipline
Ahern, A., Bennett, K., & Hetherington, M., (2008) Internalisation of the Ultra-Thin Ideal: Positive Implicit Associations with Underweight Fashion Models are Associated with Drive for Thinness in Young Women, Eating Disorders, Vol. 16, 294-307 Eating Disorders
Slater, A., Tiggemann, M., Firth, B., & Hawkins, K. (2012) Reality Check: An Experimental Investigation of the Addition of Warning Labels to Fashion Magazine Images on Women’s Mood and Body Dissatisfaction, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 31, Iss. 2, P. 105-122 Social and Clinical Psychology
Dittmar, H., & Howard, S. (2004) Professional Hazards? The Impact of Models’ Body Size on Advertisement Effectiveness and Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety in Professions that do not Emphasise the Cultural Ideal of Thinness, British Journal of Social Psychology, No. 43, Iss. 4, 477-497 Social Psychology
Tiggemann, M. & Polivy, J. (2010) Upward and Downward: Social Comparison Processing of Thin Idealised Media Images, Psychology of Women Quarterly, Vol. 34, Iss. 3, P. 356-364 Psychology
Within the papers retrieved from the Pscyhnet search, Halliwell and Dittmar (2004) Does Size Matter? The Impact of Model’s Body Size on Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety and Advertising Effectiveness, Harper & Tiggemann (2007) The Effect of Thin Media Images on Women’s Self-Objectification and Tiggemann et al (2013) Disclaimer on Fashion Magazine Advertisements were located as they appeared a number of times in the selected papers, suggesting that they were relevant and credible.
The research conducted maintained a positivist quantitative methodology (Comerasamy, 2012). Alarge amount of research was accessed (CRD, 2012) and then synthesised and analysed into a summary of themes through meta-analysis (Comerasamy, 2012). This method is beneficial as it is low in cost and less time consuming than conducting primary data, it also allows for a holistic approach as research from a range of disciplines can be applied to the research question (McQuarrie, 2005). This coincides with a feminist theoretical approach (Sarikakis, 2009). This method does however maintain some limitations as findings can lack specificity when initially conducted for alternative purposes (McQuarrel, 2005). These limitations were overcome by using a framework to appraise and synthesise results (Comerasamy, 2012), demonstrated in appendix 3. Reinharz’s(1992)framework of feminist theoretical criteria was also used to critically analyse each paper to determine whether the researchers maintained a feminist approach, or contributed to feminist goals.
The methodological approach maintains a feminist theoretical criteria as it allowed for a holistic approach, allowing for the use of a range of research from different disciplines to answer the question (Sarikakis, 2008). This also creates areas for new questions to be asked (McQuarrie, 2005) around issues that affect the experiences of women (Rakowi, 1994), by considering feminist normative concerns (Ackerly and Trew, 2010). This was helpful as there was a lack of specific research within the topic area, therefore findings were able to contribute to raising issues that affect people who are ‘lost in processes’(Ackerly and Trew, 2010:14);the research has therefore made a contribution to exploring silences within the fashion industry and feminism, whilst touching upon the power of epistemology (Ackerly and Trew, 2010).
Results
The research finding from the literature search are presented in (figure 7), and further discussed thematically. Methodological justifications, in terms of feminist theoretical approaches, for each paper will be explored along with an evaluation of research methods.
The literature search presented the three main themes: a) representation, in terms of the idealised images of women projected through fashion that perpetuate oppressive ideals of femininity and beauty, b) identity, in terms of the negative repercussions these representations have on young women in wider society identifying with those embodied ideals, and c) consciousness, in terms of critical awareness and feminist consciousness that viewers maintain. The research studies presented use images of idealised fashion models and magazine images, whilst the dissertation focuses on catwalk portrayals of ideals, mass media, and particularly magazine images are a primary source for young women to access catwalk images.
Figure 7
Themes Identified
Methodological Justification
Reference
Representation – the physical attributes valued by model booking attributes
Methods: Quantitative – participant observations and interviews during 2009 fashion weeks
Aim: Identify how fashion producers base decisions on slenderness and racial exclusion
Methodology: Feminist ethnographical approach, uncovering how gender operates (Aune, 2015). Relationships formed, maintaining a feminist approach (Sarikakis, 2009). Power of presence considered and uncovered feminist ethical dilemmas (Ackerly & Trew, 2010) by ‘speaking truth to power’ (Sarikakis, 2009:512), identifying systems that silence women (Rakow & Wackwitz, 2004)
Findings:Thinness and whiteness valued attributes that fashion models select. Decision deferred to market uncertainty making them cultural producers and reproducers Mears, A. (2010) Size Zero High-End Ethnic: Cultural Production and Reproduction of Culture in Fashion Modelling, Poetics, Vol. 38, No. 1, P. 21-46
Identity – young women physically compare themselves to idealised representations through social comparison
Methods: Self-report scales and questionnaire measures. Sample of 114 women aged 18-35 years
Aims: Identify social comparison in responses to viewing thin models
Methodology: feminist guided through explaining experiences of women (Rackow & Wackwitz, 2004). Majority of participants werewhite students and not diverse which is non-feminist (Reinharz, 1992)
Findings: Body dissatisfaction and low mood after viewing thin models Tiggemann, M. & Polivy, J. (2010) Upward and Downward: Social Comparison Processing of Thin Idealised Media Images, Psychology of Women Quarterly, Vol. 34, Iss. 3, P. 356-364
Identity – effects of social comparison to representations of thin ideals, leading to self-objectification
Methods: Experimental design with women 18-35 years old
Aims: Test effects of viewing thin models on self-objectification
Methodology: Explores issues affecting women’s lives which is feminist guided (Sarikakis, 2009)
Findings: Viewing thin models leads to self-objectification, negative mood, increased body anxiety and body dissatisfaction Harper, B., & Tiggemann, M. (2007) The Effect of Thin Media Images on Women’s Self-Objectification, Mood and Body Image, Sex Roles, Vol. 58, P. 649-657
Identity – Young women who positively associate with representation of thin ideals adopt eating disorder symptoms in attempt to attain those ideals
Methods: Qualitative approach -self-report measures
Aims: Examine if viewing thin models increases eating disorders
Methodology: Feminist guided through practical applications to benefit women
Findings: Eating disorder symptoms increased for those who valued thin-ideals and viewed thin models Ahern, A., Bennett, K., & Hetherington, M., (2008) Internalisation of the Ultra-Thin Ideal: Positive Implicit Associations with Underweight Fashion Models are Associated with Drive for Thinness in Young Women, Eating Disorders, Vol. 16, 294-307
Consciousness – Normal-sized models equally as effective
Methods: Snowballing sampling to recruit 202 women; demographic information collected for diverse sample. Questionnaires and self-report scales.
Aims: Examine effectiveness of normal-sized vs. thin models in fashion images
Methodology:
Beneficial practical applications given making it feminist informed (Sarikakis, 2009).
Findings: Increased body anxiety when thin-ideal is valued. Normal-sized models equally as effective Halliwell, E., & Dittmar, H. (2004) Does Size Matter? The Impact of Model’s Body Size on Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety and Advertising Effectiveness, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 23. Iss. 1. P.104-122
Consciousness – identifies the use of thin models as problematic which can serve to promote the consciousness of young women
Methods: Self-report measures and questionnaires of 75 female professional
Aims: Explore the internalisation of ideals amongst women in a profession with no focus on body ideals and an appearance-focused profession
Methodology: Practical suggestions for social change
Findings: Increased body esteem for teachers viewing normal-sized models, increased body anxiety when viewing thin models. Immersion in context of thin-ideals increases body-anxiety Dittmar, H., & Howard, S. (2004) Professional Hazards? The Impact of Models’ Body Size on Advertisement Effectiveness and Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety in Professions that do not Emphasise the Cultural Ideal of Thinness, British Journal of Social Psychology, No. 43, Iss. 4, 477-497
Representation –supports diverse body representations
Consciousness –favoured normal-sized models
Methods: Mixed-methods – self-report scales and questionnaires with randomly selected sample of 130 young female students
Aims: Evaluate effects of framing and branding on evaluations of models
Methodology: To evidence normal-sized models are as effective as thin models in marketing which maintains a feminist approach (Sarikakis, 2009)
Findings: Normal-sized models equally effective as small-sized models Bian, X & Foxall, G. (2013) Will Normal-Sized Female Models in Advertisements be Viewed as Positively as Small-Sized Models, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 47, No. 314, P. 485-506
Representations – models embody feminine ideals
Consciousness – A feminist approach to research has viewed these embodiments through a critical lens
Methods: Year-long study- participant observation and interviews within modelling industry
Aims: To examine how female catwalk models adhere to norms and ideals constructed by fashion producers and how models experience and attain idealised femininity
Methodology: Qualitative research is traditionally feminist which uncovers meanings (Metso & Feuvre, 2006) through relationships (Sarikakis, 2009)
Findings: Models subjected to ruthless disciplining regimes and objectification Mears, A. (2008) Discipline of the Catwalk, Ethnography, Vol. 9. Iss. 4. 429-456
Representations – awareness of artificial representations of models is beneficial to viewers
Consciousness – interrupted social comparison Methods: Mixed qualitative and quantitative measures used to study participants who viewed thin models in fashion spreads
Aims: To examine the effects of using warning labels on fashion model imagesMethodology: Quantitative and qualitative approaches, contribute to social change which maintains a feminist research approach (Sarikakis, 2009)
Findings:
-less body dissatisfaction with warning labels applied Slater, A., Tiggemann, M., Firth, B., & Hawkins, K. (2012) Reality Check: An Experimental Investigation of the Addition of Warning Labels to Fashion Magazine Images on Women’s Mood and Body Dissatisfaction, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 31, Iss. 2, P. 105-122
Consciousness –awareness raising not effective with highly constructed images
Methods: Mixed methods; self-report scales and questionnaires
Aims: This study was conducted to replicate
Slater et al’s (2012) findings
Methodology:
Intentions to contribute to social change bettering the experiences of women, therefore maintaining a feminist approach (Sarikakis, 2009).
Findings:
-No benefits of warning labels Tiggemann, M., Slater, A., Bury, B., Hawkins, K., & Firth, B., (2013) Disclaimer on Fashion Magazine Advertisements: Effects of Social Comparison and Body Dissatisfaction, Body Image, Vol. 10, Iss. 1, P. 45-53
Representation:
Mears (2010) identified ‘thinness’ and ‘whiteness’ as valued attributes of femininity within the high-end fashion industry, with model booking agents basing femininity on class and race; high-end models are selected on the basis of appearing sexually unavailable, with a distinct and rarefied beauty. Mears (2010) found that booking agents relied on stereotypical conventions for their selections, and failed to accept their autonomy in decision making, instead deferring decisions to market demands. Without objective standards in the fashion industry, this repeat selection of stereotypical idealised femininity continues. Mears (2010) concluded that booking agents therefore produce and reproduce cultural ideals. Mears’ (2010) insight into the production and reproduction of feminine ideals within the fashion industry is an important starting point as it identifies specific idealised physical attributes, and emphasises the power that a small group of fashion producersmaintainover the ideals within wider society. Therefore, catwalk representations of women are reflective of cultural reproduction and the production of feminine ideals by a small group, which consequently causes implications for women in wider society.
Identity:
Ahern et al (2008), Tiggemann and Polivy (2010) and Harper and Tiggemann (2007) demonstrate the internalisation and positive associations that young women make with models and identify theemotional and psychological effects this can have on young women, including low mood, body dissatisfaction, eating disorder symptoms and self-objectification.This demonstrates the extent to which exposure to unrealistic and unrepresentative images of fashion models can have on young female viewers, and further demonstrates the power and influence that the decisions of a small group of fashion producers have on producing ideals that young female consumers aspire to attain. Tiggman and Polivy, 2010 found thathrough social comparison women compare themselvesto thin, white catwalk models, and a disjuncture occurs. Ahern et al (2008) found that positive association with those ideals can lead to damaging manifestations such as eating disorder symptoms, in order to attain those ideals.
Consciousness:
It is important to note that within Ahern et al’s (2008) findings the influence of personal attitudes were critical to whether young women acted upon their positive associations; suggesting consciousness and awareness can influence the attitudes that the young women make with the ideals that permeate the catwalks.
Consciousness will be explored in terms of interventions that inform viewers of the enhancement of images using Slater et al (2012) and Tiggemann et al’s (2013) findings. Also inraising awareness of the rigorous regimes that models undergo to attain the embodiment of feminine ideals explored in Mears (2008) study, which emphasises the unrealistic and objectifying processes that models undergo within the fashion industry. Mears’ (2010) research uncovers the structural process of cultural production behind the scenes of the fashion industry that viewers are unaware of, demonstrating an area where consciousness is needed.Finally, Bian and Foxall (2013) and Halliwell and Dittmar’s (2004) found that normal-sized models are equally as effective in fashion marketing as small-sized models, andawareness of these aspects has been viewed with intent to intervene in the detrimental effects the fashion industry has on female viewers.
Slater et al (2012) found benefits in applying warning labels, stating that images had been digitally enhanced, tofashion spreads; resulting in lower levels of body dissatisfaction amongst participant. Therefore, awareness artificiality could intervene in viewers positively associating with and comparing themselves to thin idealised models. Tiggemann et al (2013), however, aimed to replicate the study and found no benefits. This raises implications for the suggested intervention, though researchers note difference in stimuli; the latter used fashion advertisements which are generally perceived as obviously constructed, conveying a lack of authenticity (Tiggemann, et al, 2013)which utilises the viewer’s consciousness, whilst Ahern et al (2013) used fashion spreads which are presented more realistically. The initial findings cannot be strengthened through replication, however, an important point emerges regarding consciousness; warning labels are not effective when used on images that are obviously highly constructed, suggesting that viewers are already aware of the lack of authenticity the images have. However, when used on fashion spreads which are presented in a realistic context warning labels were effective, suggesting that viewers were not aware of the digital enhancement of images;meaning comparison and association was interrupted with positive effects on body satisfaction. Mears (2008) exploration of the rigorous regimes idealised models undergo to attain the embodiment of those ideals supports this idea. It is possible that raising awareness of the amount of work that goes into constructing the idealised images of models and revealing their artificial nature, feminism could work with fashion to present more representative and positive images for young female viewers to associate with.
Mears (2008) identified the struggles a model experiences beyond a picture, where she is subjected to ‘infantilization’ (p.430), intense surveillance and a scrutinising judgement criteria. All of which, Mears (2008) argues, must be concealed for consumers to buy into ideals.This evidence is crucial as it frames the fashion industry as a capitalist money-making industry, with practices that scrutinise women to construct an unattainableideal that the masses buy intoby capitalising on a consumers dissatisfactions. Consciousness of this, supported by Slater et al (2012), could benefits women through critically viewing how aspect of fashion ‘turns female bodily capital into cultural capital’ (p. 453). Further, Mears’ (2010) investigation of cultural production and reproduction by fashion producers is another concealed element that few have exposure to. Through exposure of the stereotypical reproduction process that is at work behind the scenes of the catwalk, young female viewers may benefit.
Bian and Foxall (2013) and Halliwell and Dittmar’s (2004) research evidences that normal sized models are equally as effective in marketing compared to thin models. Bian and Foxall (2013) found that thin models were only more effective when participants activated thin models from memory when images were framed in established brands that currently used thin models. This raises a contradiction in the selections of model booking agents in Mears’ (2010) findings and the reality of marketing effectiveness. Furthermore,Bian and Foxall (2013) found the health consciousness of participants significantly affected the perceived attractiveness of thin models, meaning normal-sized models were favoured. This is crucial, as it highlights an area for intervention and establishes the effectiveness of critical facility in practice.
Evaluation of results:
The results presented maintain a holistic approach, with studies sourced from a range of disciplines relevant to the dissertation subject. Each study maintained a feminist research approach through contributing to uncovering feminist ethical dilemmas (Ackerly & Trew, 2010) of the negative implications of feminine aesthetic ideals on female viewers.All studies examining women’s associations with thin idealised images of models (Bian & Foxall, 2013, Tiggemann & Polivy, 2010; Ahern, et al, 2008; Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004, Dittmar & Howard, 2004) provide justification for their exploration by acknowledging the high levels of body dissatisfaction amongst women in the western world. Furthermore, Mears’ (2008, 2010) studies demonstrate a feminist approach through extensive feminist debate theorists in analysing results. In terms of the dissertation, this strengthens the feminist informed approach maintained.
Furthermore, each study meets Reinharz’s (1992) criteria of feminist research andeach used a multiplicity of research methods.However, 8/10 usedthe same methods of self-report scales and questionnaires. Self-report methods are effective in this context byproviding the participants’ own perspective to yield quantitative results, and therefore allow access to phenomenological data within the participants own world (Barker, 2005). The main criticism of this method is validity (Barker, 2005), however the majority of findings from each study have generated a similar overall response of the negative implications of exposure to feminine ideals on women. A limitation in sampling within 7/10 studies, is that age range is limited to 16-35 year olds, with 6/10 samples made up of students. Halliwell and Dittmar (2004) noted thisand actively aimed to recruit a diverse sample demographic, in line with the feminist research principle of representing diversity (Reinherz, 1992).
Mears (2008, 2010) ethnographical approaches allowed her to maintain a feminist approach as the researcher acted as a subject through participant observation and developed special relations with those she was studying, becoming an interactive researcher (Rakow, 1992).
Overall, the research studies presented utilise quantitative (8/10 studies) and qualitative (2/10 studies) approaches to research. Whilst there is some diversity in methods, the multiplicity of research methods is limited in favour of quantitative self-report methods. However, it is important to note that these methods were most appropriate in the context of the phenomena being studied, as they give the women’s perspective (Barker, 2005) whilst providing quantifiable scientific data. Feminists have begun to use qualitative approachesto research, after traditionally rejecting them as patriarchal means of data collection (Metso & Feuvre, 2006); the results demonstrate that incorporating quantitative approaches into feminist research can help to deeply analyse issues affecting women’s lives and promote action to social change.
The results demonstrate that the fashion industry’s projection of thinness and whiteness as feminine ideals are oppressive and operate as the dimension of fashion that is detrimental to women, as narrow representations of women portrayed in fashion and the detrimental effects these have on women’s identity through a disjuncture in appearance comparison. This opposes the dimension that is enjoyable and empowering for women. The results show that viewers’ awareness of the artificial and unauthentic representations of embodied ideals can affect the associations that women make with unhealthily thin models. Therefore, it can be suggested that through using fashion as a platform for raising feminist consciousness amongst young female viewers, the detrimental effects could be alleviated.
Analysis and Discussion
Each theme identified through the research conducted will be further analysed and discussed with reference to feminist theorists. The argument that feminism and fashion can promote positive social change for female viewers will be strengthened, and will demonstrate how fashion can promote a positive representation of feminism.
Representation – The current fashion industry
Mears (2010) identified that in the absence of standards fashion producers reproduce and produce cultural ideals of beautytheirmodel selections; this isbased on traditional stereotypicalconventions and maintains and createsfeminine ideals; this exploration is important as it highlights power relations and their associations with ideals. To sell a product, an image must be sold first (Entwistle, 2009), this image is a narrow representation of femininity and catwalk models embody these ideals of the female body and beauty (Craik, 2003). Beauty and thinness are valued within the fashion industry with few black or ethnic models (Entwistle, 2009) and these images of perfection have become a dominant reality (Craik, 2003) which intensifies pressure to attainidealisation (Entwistle, 2009), manifesting in a culture where one can never be thin enough (Bardo, 2003)
The fashion industry is comprised of ‘collective selection’, where decisions made by key professionals determine the ideals presented (Blumer, 1969); collective decisions are socially produced through the social and cultural relations of designers, buyersand, as identified by Mears (2010), model booking agents. Selective choices are determined by a professional’s immersion in fashion culture, meaning they are cultural mediators and innovators. Mears’ (2010) supports this, finding that ideals are produced and reproduced the decisions of fashion producers. Through being immersed in the fashion industry context, the selective decisions made mediate and reproduce ideals (Blumer, 1969). Equally, they maintain the power to innovate and produce cultural ideals towards change (Mears, 2010). However, booking agents defer their decisions to market uncertainty (Mears, 2010) implying capitalist intentions dominate decisions, allowing fashion producers to excusetheir stereotypical decisions that reproduce oppressive cultural ideals. Importantly, normal-sized models are equally as effective as thin idealised models in market consumption (Bian & Foxall, 2013; Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004); highlighting that, despite calls to introduce more diverse body sizes to the catwalk (Bian & Foxall, 2013),the active discriminatory decisions of fashion producers continue to select models based on attributes that fulfil narrow representations of feminine ideals.Fashion producers, as a hegemonic group, maintain the power and influence to make selective decisions to introduce diverse representations of women from different intersections of society to the catwalks and alter idealised beauty and desirablity. However, the fashion industry continues to reproduce and perpetuate sexism. Consequently, they control gender performance by selecting models who embody markets relevant femininity (Mears, 2010). The fashion industry changes the idealsprojected through producers’ selections of looks and designs, meaning aesthetics are promoted and popularised (Entwistle, 2009). This highlights the potentialto change representations and an area where feminism can evoke positive change for young women.
These representations have been criticised by feminists, specifically Wolf (1991) who maintains that the ideals of feminine culture propose the only means of women’s fulfilment is through self-improvement. Further Vermeulen (2004) argues that the fashion industry isused by women to transform into appealing ideals through ‘stepping obediently onto the treadmill’ (p.9). In protest, second-wave feminists adopted the ‘anti-fashion’ ideology by rejecting mainstream fashion (Steele, 1997) in order to expose power hierarchies and feminist issues of gender and class (Suterwalla, 2013). However, Scott (2005) argues that the ideology merely conforms to another particular style and representation within fashion; disputes relating to women’s self-adornment have been divisive within feminism (Sika, 2014) and Scott (2005) argues that appearance is a fault-line between second-wave activists and women today.
Therefore, it is important to make a distinction; Wolf’s (1991) criticism is practically applicable to the detrimental effects of the patriarchal workings of the fashion, however, it does not recognise the empowering and expressive dimension of fashion within women’s culture (Picardie, 2015; Gray, 2010; Raine, 2010; Evans & Thornton, 1991). This distinction is imperative as Fawcett & Buckley (2002) argue the importance of dialogue between generations of feministsfor young women to engage; to maintain this dialogue, feminists must uphold an understanding approach to women who enjoy and participate infashion (Raine, 2010), without disregarding the oppressive dimension, this may enable a more positive view of feminism. Through this new generation feminist approach, it is possible to view fashion with potential to be subversive and liberating (Picardie, 2015), opposed to denigrating fashion as a distraction to empowerment (Jacobson, 2010). Wilson (1985) establishes that fashion can support male ideology, but also can be enjoyed by women through self-expression. This demonstrates the paradoxical nature of the industry,through this perspective of fashion, it is possible to identify areas where feminism is necessary for positive change, whilst identifying the pleasurable aspects that offer meaning and creativity to women (Yim, 2011; Wilson, 1985). Rejecting fashion would be unrealistic and impossible(Raine, 2010) whilststripping women of their right to autonomous self-expression (Yim, 2011). Rejecting fashion would also be to ignore its power, as feminists can positively recruit fashion for political purposes (Sika, 2014; Pham, 2012).
Wolf’s (1991) criticisms of fashion can be applied to the patriarchal dimension, which is distinguishable from the enjoyable dimension within women’s culture (Paulicelli & Wissinger, 2013). This allows ongoing intergenerational feminist dialoguewith the aim of improving women’s experiences (Wilson, 1985).Therefore, through acknowledging women’s autonomous participation, as increasingly academic focus emphasises the pleasurable aspects of fashion (Jacobson, 2010), then a more realistic view can be maintained through unifying feminists to achieve their goals, rather than allowing fashion to be divisive amongst feminists (Sika, 2014). Women can therefore be exposed to feminist statements through the catwalk, as fashion is a platform that tells a story (Paulicelli & Wissinger, 2013); acting as a powerful medium for young women towards their emancipation.
Identity
The implications of idealised representations on women’s identity will be explored using Tafjel and Turner’s (1979) social identity theory in relation to gendered identity and power relations as products of patriarchy within western culture. This will reveal the negative impacts of gender expectations on women’s identities as well as the potential for fashion to empower women’s identities, demonstrating how feminism and fashion can positively influence the experiences of women.
Our clothes ‘change our view of the world and change the world’s view of us’ (Woolf, 1999:120). Fashion is a conversation that women share (Picardie, 2015), it navigates our relationships (Yim, 2011) and fundamentally proclaims our identity (Sika, 2014). Fashion communicates identity and is a social discourse (Hamilton, 2011); identity constitutes the meanings that define a person in relation to their society (Burke, 1980) and one’s appearance contributes to maintaining an identity (Stone, 1982). Tafjel and Turner (1979) propose three levels of identity that women experience; personal, role and social, these levels will be explored within the context of dominant social norms and gender expectations maintained within western culture.
A woman’s social identity is defined by her relation to social groups and fashion impacts this level most significantly (Sika, 2014). A woman’s dress is a powerful signifier of her identity and subjectivity in public space (Beauvoir, 1949), and at this level, fashion categorises women’s identities through class division in terms of those who can and cannot access it (Sika, 2014), which is supported by Mears (2010) who identified differences in constructions dependent upon class. A woman can manipulate her social identity through self-image by altering the group she belongs to (Sika, 2014); this demonstrates the power of presentation and how women rely on ‘their appearance as crucialcurrency’ (Banyard, 2010:44). Social identity is formed through social categorisation, whereby a woman identifies with a group, adopts their values and compares her group to others (Tafjel, 1979). Fashion can be a powerful signifier of a social group; non-conformist women, such as anti-fashion feministshave used dress to rebel against the fashion industry by refusing to participate in it (Steele, 1970) to challenge power hierarchy and subvert traditional identities (Suterwalla, 2015). However this wavers our power to influence fashion; feminists have successfully recruitedfashion to promote campaigns (Sika, 2014), for example, the Suffragettes used dress to represent their cause (O’Connell, 2015) and defined themselves by what they wore (Picardie, 2015).
West & Zimmerman (1987) argue that gender is a matter of doing, meaning it can be undone, rather than simply being and Wilson (1985) argues that fashion defines and redefines gender boundaries. Therefore, as identified by Mears (2008) femininity is placed onto bodies, through fashion producers selecting models with particular attributes of which they believe constitutefemininity and beauty. Freud (1968) proposed that femininity denotes passivity and radical feminists have argued that the fashion industry is a means of subordinating women through imprisoning them in their passive femininity (Swami et al, 2010); further Bartky (1990) and Wolf (1990) argue that models reinforce images of idealised femininity, therefore, through decisions of fashion producers (Mears, 2008), femininity is a reproduction of gendered power relations (Swami et al, 2010) and categorising gender regulates the normalisation of those oppressive structures (Butler, 2006).
A woman’s role identity refers to expectations and social meanings associated with the role a woman performs in society (Burke and Stets, 2000). Dress choices are deemed socially acceptable or unacceptable in relation to the expected behaviour of the role a woman is performing; this is generally determined by age, and in roles such as mothers or wives women are expected to behaviour modestly, compared to younger women who receive less criticism for making bolder dress choices (Sika, 2014). Sika (2014) argues that older women are snubbed for making socially unacceptable dress choices that are acceptable for young women. This demonstrate deeper conversations within fashion as a women’s autonomous self-presentation is entrenched in social values (Yim, 2011), which are associated with society’s gender expectationsthat determine the role identity of women.Wolf (1990) views this as a regulating and disciplining women, keeping them in their subordinate social role.
Swami et al (2010) argue that disciplining women is also achieved through normalisation and self-surveillance, which is key in the maintenance of patriarchal power relations as women voluntarily take action towards attaining idealised feminine bodies (Bartky, 1990). Furthermore, Wolf (1990) argues that exposure to models ensures themaintenance of the subordination of women through their continuous struggle to achieve the beauty myth. Through gendered power relations and gender identities women are primarily viewed based on their aesthetics as opposed to their characteristics and personalityand (Bordo, 1993; Bartky, 1990). Swami et al (2010) argue that this culture reduces women to objectification and women’s competencies are ignored (Wolf, 1990). Women are reduced to products for visual pleasure which constitutes gender oppression (Bartky, 1990);this strips women of their identities and contributes to the justification of violence against women (Kilbourne, 2010), contributing to a dangerous and unsafe culture for women to live in. The objectification of women has traditionally been associated with men (McKee, 2005) however, self-objectification has now become a focus as well as the objectification of women, by women (Levy, 2005; Strelan & Hargreaves, 2005). Harper & Tiggemann (2007) found that exposure to images of thin models, increased self-objectification; this was based on Frederickson and Roberts’ (1997) objectification theory which recognises that the female body is subjected to evaluation and inspection, as an object of value to others. This demonstrates the influence the fashion industry has through glamorising thinness, which has dictated the terms of idealised beauty (Bardo, 2003). Banyard (2010) argues that this stigmatisation and objectification of the female body is ‘on a scale like never before’ (p.43) which intrinsically linked with gender inequality; this has led to women feeling inadequate about their physical appearance (Swami, et al, 2010) which has driven women to pursue unattainable ideals, of which few come close and those who do rarely gain power or social respect (Collins, 2011).
Personal identity is associated how a woman views herself (Tafjel& Turner, 1979). Fashion choices are not constrained by expectation butbased on what makes a woman feel confident and happy, and at this level self-esteem, well-being and internalised beliefs are most detrimentally effected (Sika, 2014).Conversely,this level is where empowerment is most effective. Idealised representationsshape perceptions young female have of themselves,causingthem to imagine defects (Craik, 2003) through social comparison (Tiggemann & Polivy, 2010). Inevitably, this ideal is unattainable(Collins, 2011) and women are left feeling unauthentic which makes the female body a site for oppression (Smolak & Murnan, 2007). This can result in low mood, body dissatisfaction and body-focused anxiety (Tiggemann & Polivy, 2010, Harper & Tiggemann, 2007; Dittmar & Howard, 2004).
Bardo (2003) argues thinness dominates eating disorder discussions and Ahern et al (2008) found that viewing images of thin models resulted in an increased drive for thinness and eating disorder symptoms (Ahern et al, 2008). Young people are besieged with the message that fat is abhorrent, and one can never be thin enough (Bardo, 2003) meaning they lack distinction between what is required of them compared to models (Craik, 2003). Banyard (2010) identifies eating disorders as logical gender inequality, which has resulted in women’s persistent self-surveillance (Bartky, 1990).
Exploring fashion’s influences over women’s identities and the associated gender power relations, enables the identification of the levels at which the patriarchal dimension of fashion can affect women. Whilst societal expectations influence a woman’s role and social identity, personal identity seems most significant at which intervention would benefit the well-being of women susceptible to the detrimental effects of the fashion industry.
Consciousness– A Way Forward
Feminists have persistently argued that fashion objectifies women (Sika, 2014; Raine, 2010) and the research results demonstrate the oppressive potential the fashion industry has over women in terms of idealised beauty and serving gender inequality through gendered power relations and gender identity; it is the objectifying and oppressive manifestations of femininity perpetuated by the fashion industry that feminists have criticised (Wissinger, 2013).However, it is important to recognise that this oppressive nature is a product of with wider patriarchal social expectations of women that contribute to objectification and subordination, identified by Butler, (2006) andWolf(1990). It is critical that the patriarchal dimension of fashion does not tarnish the entire industry by realising that “not everything born out of patriarchy and fashion is oppressive to women” (Sika, 2014:1); rejecting fashion as oppressive ignores its political meanings and rich culture (Boycott, 2007) and Wilson (2000), fashion is imperative within culture for communication and modernity.
Fashion can be positive for women (Picardie, 2015, Raine, 2010, Boycott, 2007, Scott, 2005, Showalter, 1995)as it allows women the right to be autonomous (Yim, 2011), happy and contribute towards self-acceptance (Sika, 2014). It is important to realise that, similar to second-wave feminists who supported autonomous choice in self-fashioning (Steele, 1997), fashion can be appropriated as a symbol of a woman’s independence (Boycott, 2007). Furthermore, freedom of thought and expression can articulated through fashion (Yim, 2011), and Mill (1859) argues that authenticity can be reached through experiencing alternative beliefs. Therefore, it is possible for women as moral agents to experience, through the catwalk as a platform for feminist messages, alternative feminist views which can contribute to them reaching authenticity in their autonomy, whichare fundamental human rights (Yim, 2011). Feminists can enjoy fashion without being condemned (Sika, 2014);finding it pleasurable does not make women a ‘dupe of fashion’ or a ‘plaything of men’ (Scott, 2005:1). Further, through women have embraced fashion and beautification (Collins, 2011) and as women have become more economically independent, they have chosen to spend more on their appearance (Boycott, 2007).
In order to fully achieve the objective of liberating women through fashion and feminism by alleviating the detrimental effects on women, men and male-dominated powercan no longer be blamed (Collins, 2011; Levy, 2005). Instead, females must be equipped with skills to resist culturally oppressive ideals of appearance (Collins, 2011). This can be achieved through feminist consciousnessthis can a) provide female viewers of fashion with a critical perspective of the industry with awareness of superficial constructions of ideals identified by the research findings, and b) create feminist dialogue within popular culture which will bring feminist issues to the public forum.The following section will explore feminist consciousness and demonstrate the benefits of this with reference to the research findings, andmoments within popular culture that have successfully and positively promoted feminism and feminist goals will also be identified.
Feminist Consciousness:
Traditionally, feminist consciousness is considered as a transformation for women in altering their perception of everyday life (Green, 1979) to become aware of their subordination and realising and acting upon the possibilities for a societal re-organisation based on the equality of women and men (Lerner, 1994). The need for consciousness was established as women could not experience and act upon their authentic self in a society that constructed a subordinate and objectified image of women (Colker, 1992); whilst feminist consciousness was criticised for stereotyping women as subjective knowledge seekers, it aided women in breaking their silencing through enabling women to value their identity by affirming their experiences which equipped women to live in a society that devalued them (Colker, 1992). Whilst a more contemporary view of feminist consciousness-raising is available (Sowards & Renegar, 2004), this view is still applicable to how the identities of women today can be detrimentally affected by the patriarchal nature of fashion. As identified, women’s social and role identity can be restricted by oppressive gender expectations of women which can limit their fashion choices (Sika, 2014). These gender distinctions deter women from reaching consciousness and consequently deter them from reaching their aspirations and an authentic sense of self (Colker, 1992). In terms of freedom of dress, this demonstrates how gendered identities and expectations limit a woman’s ability to experience full authenticity within autonomy (Yim, 2011); importantly, when that freedom of choice is restricted or taken away, those restrictions become an abuse of power (Yim, 2011). Therefore, women still experience restrictions on their freedom of choice regarding self-fashioning due to the maintenance of oppressive social expectations.In terms of pursuing authenticity, which is fundamental to quality of life (Yim, 2011), feminist consciousness-raising benefited women by encouraging them to make decisions based on listening to their inner voice and considering a range of social messages, as opposed to unreflectively accepting an oppressive, dominant culture (Colker, 1992).
Fundamental to traditional feminist consciousness-raising, and relevant to the dissertation’s aims, was dialogue; this is a conversation that primarily aims to allow those involved to learn, grow and change as a result of listening to differing views (Swidler, 1983). This does not involve forcing another person to accept one’s own values, but to aid our own understanding of our relationship and role within our society (Swidler, 1983). Through making feminist statements on the catwalk and within fashion, this dialogue can be introduced. Sowards and Regner (2004) argue that the contemporary public sphere requires feminist consciousness-raising to alter its functions and style; including using popular culture for consciousness-raising for young women. Wong (2003)argued that through popular culture, young women identify with strong and independent female icons. Furthermore, many young female viewers become empowered through their exposure to these females which encourages their reflection of their own oppression, contributing to empowerment (Sowards & Renegar, 2004). Within contemporary popular culture, this has been achieved by female celebrities such as Emma Watson, who used her profile to open a feminist dialogue amongst young women; Watson backed the ‘HeForShe’ campaign which has ‘changed the conversation of feminism’ (Lechliter, 2014:1). In addition,Chanel’s feminism themed SS15 catwalk showed models holding ‘HeforShe’ placards as a feminist protest. Whilst this has been recognised as an accessible means of female empowerment for young women interested in fashion (Willemse, 2015), it has been criticised for its contradictory use of skinny, white models to promote feminism’s cause (Cosslett, 2014). This demonstrates how co-opting fashion and feminism has the potential for a contemporary means of feminist consciousness-raising, however in order to be fully effective, feminism must intervene in the patriarchal dimension of fashion that has contributed to the objectification of women through narrow representations of women, which primarily involves body-size diversity (Mears, 2008).
Body Size Diversity:
The need for body type diversity on the catwalks was the main finding that arose from the research, as the use of thin idealised and underweight models had problematic implications for the self-perception of female viewers (Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004). Dittmar and Howard (2004) found that those who were most immersed in a context that valued the thin-ideal suffered greater body-dissatisfaction; in western culture where thinness is idealised, young women cannot escape the ubiquitous emphasis on this ideal (Bardo, 2003), therefore it could be suggested that altering idealised images to be more representative and realistic, may alleviate the pressures for young women to attempt to pursue unhealthy bodily ideals. This is critical as normal-sized models are equally as effective in marketing (Bian & Foxall, 2013; Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004). Mears (2008) found that models booking agents refused to consider signing catwalk models who did not fit within the accepted size conventions; this is significant when normal-sized models are equally effective, and Halliwell and Dittmar (2004) argue that if this was adopted in practice, then body-focused anxiety could be avoided for many women. In addition to body-size diversity, awareness raising focussing on the systematic inequalities that function in the fashion industry including the reluctance of fashion producers to book models with diverse body types could allow female viewers to think more critically about the industry. Using normal-sized models would portray realistic representations and serve as an implicit feminist intervention to alleviate the negative impacts of the current fashion industry by promoting positive body image (Bian & Foxall, 2013).
Awareness of representations:
In support of promoting feminist consciousness-raising to allow young female viewers who are susceptible to thin idealised images, the research conducted found that awareness interrupted the internalisation process of valuing thin idealised images; specifically, normal-sized models were viewed more positively than small-sized models due to health consciousness (Bian & Foxall, 2013). This demonstrates the benefits of critical facility when being exposed to images of idealised thinness. Furthermore, Slater et al (2012) found that adding warning labels to fashion spreads usingthin idealised models that had been re-touched, resulted in lower levels of body dissatisfaction for viewers, which further supports the benefits of raising awareness of the artificial and constructed nature of images portrayed by fashion. Mears’ (2008) explorations of the harsh, rigorous routines that catwalk models undergo to attempt to embody feminine beauty ideals is also critical, as awareness of these regimes demonstrate that even models struggle to attain them; Mears (2008) argued that this disciplining process must be concealed from consumers, in order for them to believe the beauty myth and buy into that culture. It is possible that greater awareness of the process that fashion models undergo, including health consciousness, may alter the attitudes of viewers leading to change in the use of normal-sized catwalk models. Therefore, it is crucial that female viewers fashion, with constant exposure to narrow idealised images (Bordo, 2003), are equipped as best possible to view the fashion industry through a critical lens; this can be achieved through feminist consciousness, which encourages a critical perspective of social and personal injustices (Sowards & Renegar, 2004).
Critical Facility in Practice:
Perfected images have dominated our reality and promoted thinness as a beauty norm, meaning young people are growing up in a culture where fat is evil and they can never be thin enough (Bordo, 2003). In order to overcome this, there are movements that aim to instil critical facility in young people in order to aid their resistance of idealised and damaging norms. ‘The Self-Esteem Team’ (2015) provide workshops and presentations for students and young people to encourage critical facility in relation to body-image dissatisfaction, eating disorders and mental health. The founders Devon and Crilly (2015) claim that there has been an increase of young people accessing mental health services due to body dissatisfaction, and argue this is the result of the media turning the body into a commodity that is never perfect enough. Therefore, through providing sessions for young people regarding the psychological and emotional implications of body-image, they encourage young people to view ideals promoted by the media critically. This is imperative as females hating their self-image and bodies has become an accepted, normal part of our everyday lives and females have become accustomed to this, to an extent where cosmetic surgery and eating disorders are a logical means to achieve idealised perfection (Banyard, 2010). Further, this has created a culture where increasingly, young people are accessing mental health services due to body dissatisfaction (Devon and Crilly, 2015). This practical intervention for working with young people suffering from the detrimental effects of idealised images, demonstrates how awareness raising and critical facility can benefit communities by improving the well-being of young people; this is transferable as feminism could recruit fashion as a creative means to interact with vulnerable young women through creative and interactive workshops in the community.
Collins (2011) also offers a transferable practical intervention to promote viewing beauty ideals critically amongst young girls. Collins (2011) focusses on the Barbie doll as detrimental to the beauty ideals upheld by young girls, and suggests that Barbie can be recruited to encourage young girls to open up questions of beauty and self-image. Collins’ (2011) suggestion is transferable to fashion; fashion can be enlisted to encourage young women to, through critical facility and feminist consciousness, question and open up a dialogue about beauty ideals and body-image. Enacting an alternative could help to undo values, allowing women to ‘engage critically, creatively and joyfully… without mocking their vanity or depriving them of fun’ (Collins, 2011:163).
Further to specifically focussing on body-image and body-dissatisfaction as primary detrimental products of oppressive beauty norms that permeate the catwalk, opening up a feminist dialogue through fashion could expose young women to wider feminist issues of injustice such as domestic violence and rape. Banyard (2010) argues that awakening women to issues of gender inequality supports social justice and the more people who are aware of this inequality, the more things can change. Therefore using fashion, an industry that primarily targets female consumers (Sika, 2014), the industry has the potential to raise awareness and emphasise feminist issues of social justice and inequality within the public forum.
A way forward – How the fashion industry can be non-oppressive
Fashioncan be used as a medium for raising the profile of feminism (Sika, 2014) and consequently feminist consciousness. However, this is not without its challenges; the divisiveness of gender politics within feminism (Paulicelli &Wissinger, 2013) must be reconciled and stereotypical negative perceptions of feminism must be overcome.
Unity – Challenges to Feminism:
“Without community there is no liberation” (Lorde, 2007:2) and in order for young women to experience themselves as unified subjects, there must be a continuing and creative intergenerational dialogue between feminists, in order for them to engage with the unceasing issues that women face within the politics of self-presentation (Fawcett & Buckley, 2000). The divisiveness of the politics of appearance amongst feminists serves to separate which creates challenges in the attainment of feminist goals; feminists must unify to support each other’s efforts (Sika, 2014) to reach their ultimate common goals of female liberation (Bradley, 2004) and the eradication of inequality (Bell, 2012). “Divide and conquer must become define and empower” (Lorde, 2007:2).
The F-Word – Challenges to the perception of Feminism:
Beck, in 1998 argued that the media rarely portrayed feminism positively, and the challenges that feminism faced was often traced back to negative media portrayals. This view still stands today, though Maseman (2012) argues that misconceptions around feminism, which is usually that feminists hate men, are purposefully distorted which has created a negative backlash. Maseman (2012) argues that these distorted views are misogynist forms of silencing empowered women. This is demonstrated by Giffart (2011) who found that self-identified feminists would practice their ideologies, whilst refraining from openly labelling their practices as feminist. Giffart (2011) found that this reluctance to explicitly identify ideologies was due to fear of social and political responses. Beck (1998) argues that the way popular culture, specifically the media, portrays feminism effects whether it is accepted or rejected by viewers. Whilst there have been some significant moments within popular culture that have supported feminism, such as Beyoncé’s ‘FEMINIST’ backdrop (Figure 8) during a performance in 2014 and the increasing representation of ageing (Whelehan & Gwynn, 2014), demonstrated in Dolce & Gabbana’s SS15 campaign (Figure 9), a negative representation of feminism remains (Mendick, 2013).
These momentsrefute McRobbie’s (2004) view that feminism is associated with ‘unglamorous women’ (p.255), demonstrating potential for fashion to represent a positive, identifiable image of feminism for young women. However, Mendick (2013) argues that portrayals are regressive and dismiss feminism as relevant.
This challenge is supported by Sowards and Renegar (2004) who argue that feminism is generally perceived as unnecessary as equality has been attained, creating a feminist backlash and negative stereotypes of contemporary feminism. Therefore, feminists today face the challenge of proving the existence of covert inequalities and subtle forms of discrimination in order to create greater identification (Sowards & Renegar, 2004). Banyard (2010) settles the post-feminism debate by claiming that women’s objectification is cloaked in a ‘rhetoric of choice and empowerment’ (p.43), which consists of the options to either wear sexy clothing or participate in laddish behaviour (Mendick, 2013). Therefore, there is still much more to be done in order for a genuinely positive representation of feminism to be achieved.
Towards diversity:
Feminism and fashion could also work together to build more positive, inclusive and representative images of women on catwalks to combat the implications of social comparison and the negative effects of internalising thin ideals. There have been some steps towards this, including Rick Owen’s Paris Fashion Week catwalk show in 2014 where models were predominantly black and muscular (Figure 10); this defiantly opposed the thin, white model which has been traditionally idealised within fashion (Long, 2014). Recently, France passed a ban on the use of underweight catwalk models to preventthe promotion of unnatural thinness and anorexia (BBC News, 2015). However, this move has received criticism for the mandating of acceptable body types, with calls for body-size diversity as a more effective intervention (Lynch, 2015). Whilst plus-size models were used on the Chromat catwalk during New York Fashion Week, 2014 (Figure 11), a lack of body type diversity remains within fashion (Holmes, 2014).
Conclusion:
Feminists have recruited fashion throughout history to promote their campaigns (Sika, 2014) and it has been used to make political statements to promote the status of women (Evans & Thornton, 1989). Whilst this ongoing relationship has been uneasy and complex (Picardie, 2015), it has nonetheless been successful (Sika, 2014). ‘Fashion is a platform that tells a story’ (Paulicelli & Wissinger, 2013) and continues to be a means of expression and female empowerment (Gray, 2010). Through a secondary research strategy method with a feminist theoretical approach, this research has demonstrated that fashion and the catwalk canbe used to create a dialogue and open the conversation of gender inequality and social injustice within the public forum. However, this requires unity amongst feminists to overcome the challenges faced (Sika, 2014; Lorde, 2007),which includes overcoming negative perceptions of feminism that still exist. Opening a feminist dialogue and creating feminist consciousness can allow women to experience their own authenticity (Yim, 2011), outside the confines of femininity; the positive promotion of feminism by fashion can enable female viewers to realise their oppression by raising feminist issues within the public forum. Furthermore, feminist intervention through raising feminist consciousness and critical awareness can positively influence young women by creating body-size diversity on the catwalks, in order to promote positive body-image, self-esteem and consequently, mental and emotional well-being (Crilly & Devon, 2015). Raising consciousness through fashion can equip young women with critical facility (Collins, 2011) to view social injustices that may affect their lives,such as violence against women and oppressive media representations (Cosslett & Baxter, 2013), allowing them to step out of the confines of gender oppression and become leaders within their communities.
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Appendices:
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Appendix 3:
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