How can the fashion industry in the UK promote a positive representation of feminism?

How can the fashion industry in the UK promote a positive representation of feminism?
Social Care and Education Studies Joint Honours
Word Count: 10,084

 

Author’s Declaration

This dissertation is the author’s own work and has not been submitted wholly or in part for any academic award or qualification other than that for which it is now
submitted.

The word count is: 10, 084

Signature: H.Campbell

Acknowledgements

For my family, to make you proud
Abstract
Aim: To demonstrate how the fashion industry in the UK can promote a positive representation of feminism
Method: The research was attained through a research search to scope the topic, before conducting a specific research search of secondary research papers using
relevant databases.
Findings: The idealised attributes of femininity valued within the UK fashion industry are whiteness and thinness which are cultural produced and reproduced ideals of
beauty. Female fashion viewers positively associate with, and internalise these ideals leading to body dissatisfaction, low-mood, negative self-perception and symptoms
of eating disorders. Awareness and consciousness interrupted the social comparison and internalisation processes.
Discussion: The key themes of a) representation of women projected by the fashion industry has led to detrimental effects on, b) the identities of female viewers on
personal and societal levels. This informed suggested interventions involving, c) consciousness, in terms of feminist consciousness-raising and promoting critical
facility. Practical applications to young women in communities have been explored, as well as moments within the current fashion industry and wider popular that
promote and discourage feminism and the implications of this will be explored in terms of a positive feminist intervention. This demonstrates that the fashion industry
in the UK can promote a positive representation of feminism through overcoming stigmatisation and demonstrating how feminism can be fashionable and therefore
identifiable for young women. This benefits women in communities by bringing feminist issues such as injustice and inequality into the public forum.

Introduction
My interest in this topic is sparked by the conflict of my personal values as a young feminist and my love of fashion; the aim is to answer the question posed, in that
the fashion world has potential to raise a feminist voice. As a young woman experiencing feminist consciousness, I believe there is a place for fashion within feminism
and that this can potentially introduce a new generation of young women to feminism and critical consciousness. I will chronologically draw upon significant feminist
moments throughout fashion history to provide a contextual background, before presenting an analysis whereby the subject has been researched through a rigorous
secondary research search and literature review.The findings will be analysed and presented into themes with supporting literature, and by identifying the current
areas within the fashion industry that negatively affect women, I will present a case that fashion can promote a positive representation of feminism. Through using a
feminist theoretical approach, literature will be explored from a position seeking equal rights for women through recognising the silencing of intersections and power
differentials (Ackerly & Trew, 2010).
Feminists have conflicted with fashion throughout history, with some considering it a threat to the liberation of women through its manifestations of femininity, which
are considered inherently oppressive and objectifying (Paulicelli & Wissinger, 2013).Personally, I feel conflicted by the contradictory ideals maintained within
feminismregarding the politics of self-presentation; this conflict is supported by Showalter, (1995) Buckley and Fawcett (2002) and Raine, (2010). Young (1990)
acknowledges a double sense of guilt endured by women who dress for the male gaze and enjoy the pleasure of their clothing.Feminists such as Scott (2005) have defended
women who enjoy fashion, calling for a change in consciousness in the debate; Scott (2005) argues that views need to be re-examined for feminism to be truly
representative of all women. In addition, Passerini (2007) acknowledges how the oppositional subjectivity of traditional feminine cultures, including fashion, are
considereddiversions towomen’s liberation, when it is the areas of women’s own pleasuresthat the most important work on politics must be done. There is a distinction
between a femininity forged by patriarchy and a womanist culture created by women; as the personal becomes the political (Paulicelli & Wissinger, 2013) “women as
subjects intervene heavily [in women’s liberation and feminine culture]” (Passerini, 2007:45). I believe this is a more helpful understanding, and with this view,
women can participate equally in their own culture and pleasures whilst being conscious of and opposing patriarchal oppression. Feminism and fashion are both part of
women’s culture (Scott, 2005). Womenare not merely passive under a false consciousness of patriarchal feminine culture. Paulicelli and Wissinger (2013) critically
point out that women can maintain a both/and approach, and fashion must be explored as a platform where gender and subjectivity are performed. Feminist criticisms of
fashion view women who invest in their appearance as incapable of realising how the fashion industry can manipulate and oppress women, rather than viewing them as
empowered and choosing to communicate through clothing (Raine, 2010). Through identifying this distinction, an intergenerational dialogue can be created between
feminists to present feminism as relatable for young women (Fawcett & Buckley, 2000).
The feminist theoretical approach used to explore literature and research focuses on women and the raising of consciousness; this involvesviewing social practices and
norms that create injustices for women critically (Ackerly & Trew, 2010). This dissertation will therefore explore how women experience the social world, focussing on
catwalk projects exposed to women in the UK and their representations of women; this willallow for suggestions tom improve women’s experiences (Gundy, 2014).
Consciousness raisingis important for young women in different communities, andlinks to social and community development as feminism is a critical movement for social
justice (Banyard, 2010). Empowerment through critical thinking and creativity is central to feminist pedagogy (Shackelford, 1992) and fashion is a creative means with
the potential to engage young women from different social intersections. Creativity can be empowering for women in different communities(Setyaningsihet al, 2012; Alese
& Hassan 2011; Morrissey & Lewin, 2010), and has the potential to encourage women to think critically about oppressive patriarchal systems that lead to issues such as
low self-esteem and poor body-image (Banyard, 2010). Therefore, the findings will contribute to social and community development through exploring equal rights and
worth (Ledwith, 2011). I believe it is critical for positive representations of feminism to be promoted to raise awarenessof gender inequality andtherefore aid social
justice; this can be achieved through using fashion as a public forum.
Historical Background: Women as visionaries – Stepping out.
I will start atthe 1920’s, at this time female designers significantly impacted fashion (Steele, 1991), significantly, Coco Chanel and Elsa Schiaparelli. This is a
critical starting point as Chanel broke the mould for women; as a fashion designer, Chanel was a visionary and businesswoman (Carter-Morely, 2015); sheis the most
influential designer of all time (Picardie, 2011)and created the most iconicpieces in history (Cartner-Morely, 2015). Chanelliberatedwomen through fashion by
appropriating masculine power in designs thatreflected women’s desire for mobility and independence at the time (Evans & Thornton, 1991). WWI led to the changing
aspirations of women; the rise of single women lead to opportunities in work and education (Dyhouse, 2010). Chanel was successful as she came of age at a time when
women were developing a voice and an identity (Carter-Morley, 2015). Increasingly in the 1920’s and 1930’s, women aimed to better their lives and invested more in
themselves (Dyhouse, 2010). Fashion was a means of achieving full participation and economic independence for women; it offered opportunities of expression in a male-
dominated world (Evans & Thornton, 1991). Couture fashion allowed for women to become creative designers and businesswomen (Evans & Thornton, 1991) andconventional
fashion offered economic independence for the less privileged (Finnegan, 1999).
First wave feminists used fashion liberate the mind through freeing the body (Radner & Smith, 2013);Chanel gave women their freedom (Anderson, 2013) through giving
them back their bodies (Cartner-Morley, 2015) as her designs signified control and invulnerability (Evans & Thornton, 1991). Chanel stated “women… must also be able to
move without bursting their seams” (Cartner-Morley, 2015, 1 Screen). Chanel achieved this through a new, practical silhouette that did not rely on corsets (Cartner-
Morley, 2015) (Figure 1). Formerly restrictive womenswear designs were replaced by simpler styles that allowed for more movement (Kay, 1986).Chanel stated “Fashion is
to do with ideas, the way we live and what is happening” (Chanel in Dixon, 2009), emphasising the political power of clothing and bodily adornment. How we dress can
communicate our associations and values (Yim, 2011), and Chanel’s revolutionary designs reflected women’s desire forindependence. This demonstrates that fashion can
make statements that contribute to feminisms ultimate goal of women’s equality (Cosslett & Baxter, 2013).

In contrast, Schiaparelli portrayed radically different representations of femininity. Her masquerade designs were decorative and superfluous,portraying excess and
folly, rejecting the restrictions of masculine dress (Radner & Smith, 2013) (Figure 2). Glamour was fashionable and associated with luxury, power, pleasure and
sexuality (Dyhouse, 2010). This was an alternative means for women to exert control through clothing; sexual dress represented a refusal of imprisoning gender
expectations of femininity, allowing women to take risks and be assertive (Dyhouse, 2010). Women could demonstrate defiance, offering women alternative opportunities
of expression(Evans & Thornton, 1991; Dyhouse, 2010). This offered women agency, however the image was tarnished by the coronation of Elizabeth II in the 1950’s;
fashionreturned to emphasise class and elegance and glamor was disapprovedof (Dyhouse, 2010). This demonstrates the states patriarchal ideals of accepting a female
monarch in a position of power, whilst maintainingwomen in a subordinate position through controlling accepted forms of femininity.

The 1960’s saw the second wave of feminism. The Women’s Liberation Movement fundamentally rejected fashion as it promoted feminine ideals (Evans & Thornton, 1989);
glamour was associated with women’s objectification and the ‘youthquake’ (Dyhouse, 2010:4) dramatically changed feminine ideals with Twiggy and Jean Shrimpton
portraying an innocent look(Dyhouse, 2010). Youth culture exploded and fashion became non-conformist and expressed attitudes (Okonowu, 2007). Whilst feminists sought
to break out of controlled femininity, Okonowu (2007) argues that fashion became a primary means of portraying the new woman as society gravitated towards women’s
liberation, with Chanel and Yves Saint Laurent embodying women’s freedom. The single girl ideal allowed women to invest in their advancement without pressure to marry
(Dyhouse, 2010). They were fashionable and wore mini-skirts,proclaiming financial success (Radner & Smith, 2013). This demonstrates the growing conflict between
feminism and fashion as it was seen by feminists to reinforce a patriarchal construction of femininity. However, as fashion at the time became increasingly non-
conformist, it emancipatedand liberatedwomen towards confidence and a new future. The aims of fashion coincided with the aims of feminism, emphasising accomplishment
and advocating for economic advancement; therefore, fashion was a means for women to achieve the goals of feminism.
The 1970’s saw radically different directions in fashion compared to the Sixties with disagreements on where fashion should go (Suterwalla, 2013). Gender debates
caused tension between fashion and feminine ideals as the Women’s Rights Movement gathered force, feminists continued to proclaim that fashion reinforced oppressive
femininity and stereotypical gender identities (Bernard, 2002; Thirdway, 1986). Feminists adopted anti-fashion, by rejecting fashions worn under the dominant gender
ideology (Barnard, 2002). Sawchuk (1988) argued that anti-fashion was inherently feminist. However, Steele (1991) argues that amongst the clash of styles, greater
freedom and choice emerged; including women wearing trouser suits and simple shift dresses. Luckett (2000) argues this expressed a more powerful feminine reflective of
public life. These fashion movements liberated women through opportunities of choice and control. Female punk’semerged, with women wearing defaced prints and torn
clothing representing anarchy and destruction, expressing social and gender antagonisms (Suterwalla, 2013); formerly hidden body parts were displayed, demonstrating
involvement in gender politics. Suterwalla (2013) argues this was a retaliation to constructions of the inferior female body.This demonstrates the power of visual
culture to represent associations with politics. Differing styles of self-presentation caused great debate.Hillman (2013) argues that while some shunned patriarchal
definitions of femininityby shredding traditional feminine dress, this was an abhorrent rejection of womanhood for others. However, these feminist styles join fashion
discourse, rather than breaking it(Keay, 1986). Therefore,rather than accepting anti-fashion vs fashion, this is one form of fashion against another (Scott,
2005).Gender politics reflected deep disagreements ofwomanhood during women’s liberation, and increasing choice of self-presentation reflected the changing position of
women. (Suterwalla, 2013).
Later, in the 1980’s fashion got louder as it became more accessible; women controlled their image and became more confident, aspirational and sexually aware (Dyhouse,
2010).This came as the Equal Pay Act 1970 and Sexual Discrimination Act 1975 began to alter attitudes towards women in the workplace, and the pill become more
available under the NHS Reorganisation Act1973,allowing women control over their lives (Dyhouse, 2010). Despite these accomplishmentsgender issues remained,andwere
challenged through fashion as a political language (English, 2013). Women challenged masculine institutions as they began to enter professional employment (Dyhouse,
2010). Women based their appearance on masculinity, rejecting femininity (Evans & Thornton, 1989). This illustratedwomen’s expectations of power through power-dressing
(English, 2013), and wearing masculine suits(Dyhouse, 2010). Women represented professionalism by adopting the masculine silhouette, which portrayed confidence and
authority in trying to ‘break the glass ceiling’ (English, 2013). However Keay (1986) argues this feeds the myth that to be liberated, a woman must become masculine.
This demonstrates the complexity of self-presentation as for some women, a feminine appearance can be hindering in positions of power (Kulsar, 2011).
Self-fashioning and choice remains politicised amongst feminists today (Hillman, 2013). McRobbie (2004) argues we are in a state of post-feminism whereby feminism has
‘passed away and is no longer needed’ (p.255), however, Banyard (2010) criticises this, arguing that gender equality is an illusion and feminism remains a ‘vital
social justice movement’ (p.2).The Anna Wintour and Hillary Clinton argument highlights the complexity of feminine appearance within a patriarchal society;Vogue
editor-in-chief Wintour criticising Clinton (Appendix 1) who refused to appear on Vogue’s February 2008 cover as she feared appearing too feminine during her political
campaign, Clinton felt that she would be perceived as inadequate if associated with the fashion magazine (Kulsar, 2011).
Whilst I disagree with McRobbie’s (2004) idea of post-feminism and that feminism is associated with the past and ‘old, unglamorous women’ (p.255), she raises an
important argument that this image encourages a dis-identification with feminism and young women. I relate to thisdis-identification through my conflicting passion for
feminism and fashion; through exploring historical feminist moments within fashion it is possible to see that fashion, whilst complex and highly debated, has played a
fundamental role historically within the liberation of women. Feminism can be glamorous and contemporary, with designers explicitly promotingfeminism, for
exampleChanelstaged a feminist march catwalk in 2014 (Figure 3) and Elle,Whistles and Fawcett Society collaborated tofor a SS14 collection (Appendix 2). In addition,
Prada described her female SS15 catwalk models as ‘strong visible fighters’, claiming “my instrument is fashion…people will look and then they will listen” (Prada in
Mower, 2013).
Methods:
A search strategy method for data collection was used to collect research papers and the researcher maintained a feminist theoretical approach. A scope of databases
was conducted and the following were chosen to explore; ASSIA, DAAI, Project Muse PsychNet, Sage, SC Online, Taylor and Francis, WGSN and Nelson. Initially, ‘Feminism
and Fashion’ was searched in each database to determine whether the database would be appropriate depending on relevance and the number of results retrieved. This
scoping also presented additional key words to be used in consequent searches. The initial inclusion and exclusion criteria applied to every search limited results to
only peer-reviewed journals published within the last 10 years; meaning results were more credible and up-to-date (Comerasamy, 2012). ASSIA produced three results that
were not relevant to the dissertation question, whereas Nelson provided 611 results. Through this initial scoping, it was determined that Nelson and Psychnet would be
used as they provided a larger amount of results that were more relevant to the question. Furthermore, they were initially selected as Nelson is an easily accessible
university database and Psychnet offers psychology literature which is a relevant discipline for answering the dissertation question.
Figure 4 demonstrates the organisation of key words used within the searches and how these were determined.
Figure 4
Fashion Industry
Positive Representation
Feminism
Fashion Messages Feminist
Catwalk/Runway Images Female
Clothing Designers Social aspects Gender
Clothing Projection Women
Popular Culture Portrayal Gender Roles
Media Perception Feminists
Models Meaning Femininity
Fashion Models Views Gender Stereotypes

Firstly, Nelson was used to search ‘catwalk representations of women’ with the inclusion/exclusion criteria stated. This produced 1 result, (which was Mears, 2010),
suggesting that the wording was to narrow. However, this result was useful and used in the findings. Next, ‘catwalk fashion modelling gender’ was searched which
retrieved 115 results; this was narrowed down by excluding theirrelevant topics of ‘globalisation’, ‘sexuality’ and ‘consumption’. This refined the number of results
to 67, of which Mears (2008) was selected. This informed the next search which focused on positive representations of larger sized models; ‘positive views of normal
sized female models’ retrieved 2, 907 results and could not be refined to a manageable amount using the databases inclusion/exclusion tools, however the first page
retrieved Bian & Foxall (2013) which was relevant and used in the findings. The ranging disciplines of these findings are presented in figure 5.
Figure 5
Nelson Search Findings
Research Discipline
Mears, A. (2010) Size Zero High-End Ethnic: Cultural Production and Reproduction of Culture in Fashion Modelling, Poetics, Vol. 38, No. 1, P. 21-46 Culture, Media
and Arts
Mears, A. (2008) Discipline of the Catwalk, Ethnography, Vol. 9. Iss. 4. 429-456 Sociology and Anthropology
Bian, X & Foxall, G. (2013) Will Normal-Sized Female Models in Advertisements be Viewed as Positively as Small-Sized Models, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 47,
No. 314, P. 485-506 Marketing

Using Psychnet, ‘body image’ and ‘fashion’ was searched which retrieved 136 peer-reviewed results within the last 10- years; this was refined by searching within
topics, which is beneficial as it helps to define the boundaries of the study’s focus (Comerasamy, 2012). The ‘dissatisfaction’ topic was selected which retrieved 18
results, includingthe findings in figure 6.
Figure 6
Psychnet Search Findings
Research Discipline
Ahern, A., Bennett, K., & Hetherington, M., (2008) Internalisation of the Ultra-Thin Ideal: Positive Implicit Associations with Underweight Fashion Models are
Associated with Drive for Thinness in Young Women, Eating Disorders, Vol. 16, 294-307 Eating Disorders
Slater, A., Tiggemann, M., Firth, B., & Hawkins, K. (2012) Reality Check: An Experimental Investigation of the Addition of Warning Labels to Fashion Magazine Images on
Women’s Mood and Body Dissatisfaction, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 31, Iss. 2, P. 105-122 Social and Clinical Psychology
Dittmar, H., & Howard, S. (2004) Professional Hazards? The Impact of Models’ Body Size on Advertisement Effectiveness and Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety in Professions
that do not Emphasise the Cultural Ideal of Thinness, British Journal of Social Psychology, No. 43, Iss. 4, 477-497 Social Psychology
Tiggemann, M. & Polivy, J. (2010) Upward and Downward: Social Comparison Processing of Thin Idealised Media Images, Psychology of Women Quarterly, Vol. 34, Iss. 3, P.
356-364 Psychology

Within the papers retrieved from the Pscyhnet search, Halliwell and Dittmar (2004) Does Size Matter? The Impact of Model’s Body Size on Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety
and Advertising Effectiveness, Harper & Tiggemann (2007) The Effect of Thin Media Images on Women’s Self-Objectification and Tiggemann et al (2013) Disclaimer on
Fashion Magazine Advertisements were located as they appeared a number of times in the selected papers, suggesting that they were relevant and credible.
The research conducted maintained a positivist quantitative methodology (Comerasamy, 2012). Alarge amount of research was accessed (CRD, 2012) and then synthesised and
analysed into a summary of themes through meta-analysis (Comerasamy, 2012). This method is beneficial as it is low in cost and less time consuming than conducting
primary data, it also allows for a holistic approach as research from a range of disciplines can be applied to the research question (McQuarrie, 2005). This coincides
with a feminist theoretical approach (Sarikakis, 2009). This method does however maintain some limitations as findings can lack specificity when initially conducted
for alternative purposes (McQuarrel, 2005). These limitations were overcome by using a framework to appraise and synthesise results (Comerasamy, 2012), demonstrated in
appendix 3. Reinharz’s(1992)framework of feminist theoretical criteria was also used to critically analyse each paper to determine whether the researchers maintained a
feminist approach, or contributed to feminist goals.
The methodological approach maintains a feminist theoretical criteria as it allowed for a holistic approach, allowing for the use of a range of research from different
disciplines to answer the question (Sarikakis, 2008). This also creates areas for new questions to be asked (McQuarrie, 2005) around issues that affect the experiences
of women (Rakowi, 1994), by considering feminist normative concerns (Ackerly and Trew, 2010). This was helpful as there was a lack of specific research within the
topic area, therefore findings were able to contribute to raising issues that affect people who are ‘lost in processes’(Ackerly and Trew, 2010:14);the research has
therefore made a contribution to exploring silences within the fashion industry and feminism, whilst touching upon the power of epistemology (Ackerly and Trew, 2010).

Results
The research finding from the literature search are presented in (figure 7), and further discussed thematically. Methodological justifications, in terms of feminist
theoretical approaches, for each paper will be explored along with an evaluation of research methods.
The literature search presented the three main themes: a) representation, in terms of the idealised images of women projected through fashion that perpetuate
oppressive ideals of femininity and beauty, b) identity, in terms of the negative repercussions these representations have on young women in wider society identifying
with those embodied ideals, and c) consciousness, in terms of critical awareness and feminist consciousness that viewers maintain. The research studies presented use
images of idealised fashion models and magazine images, whilst the dissertation focuses on catwalk portrayals of ideals, mass media, and particularly magazine images
are a primary source for young women to access catwalk images.
Figure 7
Themes Identified
Methodological Justification
Reference
Representation – the physical attributes valued by model booking attributes
Methods: Quantitative – participant observations and interviews during 2009 fashion weeks
Aim: Identify how fashion producers base decisions on slenderness and racial exclusion
Methodology: Feminist ethnographical approach, uncovering how gender operates (Aune, 2015). Relationships formed, maintaining a feminist approach (Sarikakis, 2009).
Power of presence considered and uncovered feminist ethical dilemmas (Ackerly & Trew, 2010) by ‘speaking truth to power’ (Sarikakis, 2009:512), identifying systems
that silence women (Rakow & Wackwitz, 2004)
Findings:Thinness and whiteness valued attributes that fashion models select. Decision deferred to market uncertainty making them cultural producers and reproducers
Mears, A. (2010) Size Zero High-End Ethnic: Cultural Production and Reproduction of Culture in Fashion Modelling, Poetics, Vol. 38, No. 1, P. 21-46
Identity – young women physically compare themselves to idealised representations through social comparison
Methods: Self-report scales and questionnaire measures. Sample of 114 women aged 18-35 years
Aims: Identify social comparison in responses to viewing thin models
Methodology: feminist guided through explaining experiences of women (Rackow & Wackwitz, 2004). Majority of participants werewhite students and not diverse which is
non-feminist (Reinharz, 1992)
Findings: Body dissatisfaction and low mood after viewing thin models Tiggemann, M. & Polivy, J. (2010) Upward and Downward: Social Comparison Processing of Thin
Idealised Media Images, Psychology of Women Quarterly, Vol. 34, Iss. 3, P. 356-364

Identity – effects of social comparison to representations of thin ideals, leading to self-objectification
Methods: Experimental design with women 18-35 years old
Aims: Test effects of viewing thin models on self-objectification
Methodology: Explores issues affecting women’s lives which is feminist guided (Sarikakis, 2009)
Findings: Viewing thin models leads to self-objectification, negative mood, increased body anxiety and body dissatisfaction Harper, B., & Tiggemann, M. (2007) The
Effect of Thin Media Images on Women’s Self-Objectification, Mood and Body Image, Sex Roles, Vol. 58, P. 649-657
Identity – Young women who positively associate with representation of thin ideals adopt eating disorder symptoms in attempt to attain those ideals
Methods: Qualitative approach -self-report measures
Aims: Examine if viewing thin models increases eating disorders
Methodology: Feminist guided through practical applications to benefit women
Findings: Eating disorder symptoms increased for those who valued thin-ideals and viewed thin models Ahern, A., Bennett, K., & Hetherington, M., (2008)
Internalisation of the Ultra-Thin Ideal: Positive Implicit Associations with Underweight Fashion Models are Associated with Drive for Thinness in Young Women, Eating
Disorders, Vol. 16, 294-307
Consciousness – Normal-sized models equally as effective
Methods: Snowballing sampling to recruit 202 women; demographic information collected for diverse sample. Questionnaires and self-report scales.
Aims: Examine effectiveness of normal-sized vs. thin models in fashion images
Methodology:
Beneficial practical applications given making it feminist informed (Sarikakis, 2009).
Findings: Increased body anxiety when thin-ideal is valued. Normal-sized models equally as effective Halliwell, E., & Dittmar, H. (2004) Does Size Matter? The
Impact of Model’s Body Size on Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety and Advertising Effectiveness, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 23. Iss. 1. P.104-122
Consciousness – identifies the use of thin models as problematic which can serve to promote the consciousness of young women
Methods: Self-report measures and questionnaires of 75 female professional
Aims: Explore the internalisation of ideals amongst women in a profession with no focus on body ideals and an appearance-focused profession
Methodology: Practical suggestions for social change
Findings: Increased body esteem for teachers viewing normal-sized models, increased body anxiety when viewing thin models. Immersion in context of thin-ideals
increases body-anxiety Dittmar, H., & Howard, S. (2004) Professional Hazards? The Impact of Models’ Body Size on Advertisement Effectiveness and Women’s Body-Focused
Anxiety in Professions that do not Emphasise the Cultural Ideal of Thinness, British Journal of Social Psychology, No. 43, Iss. 4, 477-497
Representation –supports diverse body representations

Consciousness –favoured normal-sized models
Methods: Mixed-methods – self-report scales and questionnaires with randomly selected sample of 130 young female students
Aims: Evaluate effects of framing and branding on evaluations of models
Methodology: To evidence normal-sized models are as effective as thin models in marketing which maintains a feminist approach (Sarikakis, 2009)
Findings: Normal-sized models equally effective as small-sized models Bian, X & Foxall, G. (2013) Will Normal-Sized Female Models in Advertisements be Viewed as
Positively as Small-Sized Models, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 47, No. 314, P. 485-506
Representations – models embody feminine ideals

Consciousness – A feminist approach to research has viewed these embodiments through a critical lens
Methods: Year-long study- participant observation and interviews within modelling industry
Aims: To examine how female catwalk models adhere to norms and ideals constructed by fashion producers and how models experience and attain idealised femininity
Methodology: Qualitative research is traditionally feminist which uncovers meanings (Metso & Feuvre, 2006) through relationships (Sarikakis, 2009)
Findings: Models subjected to ruthless disciplining regimes and objectification Mears, A. (2008) Discipline of the Catwalk, Ethnography, Vol. 9. Iss. 4. 429-456

Representations – awareness of artificial representations of models is beneficial to viewers

Consciousness – interrupted social comparison Methods: Mixed qualitative and quantitative measures used to study participants who viewed thin models in fashion
spreads
Aims: To examine the effects of using warning labels on fashion model imagesMethodology: Quantitative and qualitative approaches, contribute to social change which
maintains a feminist research approach (Sarikakis, 2009)
Findings:
-less body dissatisfaction with warning labels applied Slater, A., Tiggemann, M., Firth, B., & Hawkins, K. (2012) Reality Check: An Experimental Investigation of the
Addition of Warning Labels to Fashion Magazine Images on Women’s Mood and Body Dissatisfaction, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 31, Iss. 2, P. 105-122
Consciousness –awareness raising not effective with highly constructed images
Methods: Mixed methods; self-report scales and questionnaires
Aims: This study was conducted to replicate
Slater et al’s (2012) findings
Methodology:
Intentions to contribute to social change bettering the experiences of women, therefore maintaining a feminist approach (Sarikakis, 2009).
Findings:
-No benefits of warning labels Tiggemann, M., Slater, A., Bury, B., Hawkins, K., & Firth, B., (2013) Disclaimer on Fashion Magazine Advertisements: Effects of Social
Comparison and Body Dissatisfaction, Body Image, Vol. 10, Iss. 1, P. 45-53

Representation:
Mears (2010) identified ‘thinness’ and ‘whiteness’ as valued attributes of femininity within the high-end fashion industry, with model booking agents basing femininity
on class and race; high-end models are selected on the basis of appearing sexually unavailable, with a distinct and rarefied beauty. Mears (2010) found that booking
agents relied on stereotypical conventions for their selections, and failed to accept their autonomy in decision making, instead deferring decisions to market demands.
Without objective standards in the fashion industry, this repeat selection of stereotypical idealised femininity continues. Mears (2010) concluded that booking agents
therefore produce and reproduce cultural ideals. Mears’ (2010) insight into the production and reproduction of feminine ideals within the fashion industry is an
important starting point as it identifies specific idealised physical attributes, and emphasises the power that a small group of fashion producersmaintainover the
ideals within wider society. Therefore, catwalk representations of women are reflective of cultural reproduction and the production of feminine ideals by a small
group, which consequently causes implications for women in wider society.
Identity:
Ahern et al (2008), Tiggemann and Polivy (2010) and Harper and Tiggemann (2007) demonstrate the internalisation and positive associations that young women make with
models and identify theemotional and psychological effects this can have on young women, including low mood, body dissatisfaction, eating disorder symptoms and self-
objectification.This demonstrates the extent to which exposure to unrealistic and unrepresentative images of fashion models can have on young female viewers, and
further demonstrates the power and influence that the decisions of a small group of fashion producers have on producing ideals that young female consumers aspire to
attain. Tiggman and Polivy, 2010 found thathrough social comparison women compare themselvesto thin, white catwalk models, and a disjuncture occurs. Ahern et al (2008)
found that positive association with those ideals can lead to damaging manifestations such as eating disorder symptoms, in order to attain those ideals.
Consciousness:
It is important to note that within Ahern et al’s (2008) findings the influence of personal attitudes were critical to whether young women acted upon their positive
associations; suggesting consciousness and awareness can influence the attitudes that the young women make with the ideals that permeate the catwalks.
Consciousness will be explored in terms of interventions that inform viewers of the enhancement of images using Slater et al (2012) and Tiggemann et al’s (2013)
findings. Also inraising awareness of the rigorous regimes that models undergo to attain the embodiment of feminine ideals explored in Mears (2008) study, which
emphasises the unrealistic and objectifying processes that models undergo within the fashion industry. Mears’ (2010) research uncovers the structural process of
cultural production behind the scenes of the fashion industry that viewers are unaware of, demonstrating an area where consciousness is needed.Finally, Bian and Foxall
(2013) and Halliwell and Dittmar’s (2004) found that normal-sized models are equally as effective in fashion marketing as small-sized models, andawareness of these
aspects has been viewed with intent to intervene in the detrimental effects the fashion industry has on female viewers.
Slater et al (2012) found benefits in applying warning labels, stating that images had been digitally enhanced, tofashion spreads; resulting in lower levels of body
dissatisfaction amongst participant. Therefore, awareness artificiality could intervene in viewers positively associating with and comparing themselves to thin
idealised models. Tiggemann et al (2013), however, aimed to replicate the study and found no benefits. This raises implications for the suggested intervention, though
researchers note difference in stimuli; the latter used fashion advertisements which are generally perceived as obviously constructed, conveying a lack of authenticity
(Tiggemann, et al, 2013)which utilises the viewer’s consciousness, whilst Ahern et al (2013) used fashion spreads which are presented more realistically. The initial
findings cannot be strengthened through replication, however, an important point emerges regarding consciousness; warning labels are not effective when used on images
that are obviously highly constructed, suggesting that viewers are already aware of the lack of authenticity the images have. However, when used on fashion spreads
which are presented in a realistic context warning labels were effective, suggesting that viewers were not aware of the digital enhancement of images;meaning
comparison and association was interrupted with positive effects on body satisfaction. Mears (2008) exploration of the rigorous regimes idealised models undergo to
attain the embodiment of those ideals supports this idea. It is possible that raising awareness of the amount of work that goes into constructing the idealised images
of models and revealing their artificial nature, feminism could work with fashion to present more representative and positive images for young female viewers to
associate with.
Mears (2008) identified the struggles a model experiences beyond a picture, where she is subjected to ‘infantilization’ (p.430), intense surveillance and a
scrutinising judgement criteria. All of which, Mears (2008) argues, must be concealed for consumers to buy into ideals.This evidence is crucial as it frames the
fashion industry as a capitalist money-making industry, with practices that scrutinise women to construct an unattainableideal that the masses buy intoby capitalising
on a consumers dissatisfactions. Consciousness of this, supported by Slater et al (2012), could benefits women through critically viewing how aspect of fashion ‘turns
female bodily capital into cultural capital’ (p. 453). Further, Mears’ (2010) investigation of cultural production and reproduction by fashion producers is another
concealed element that few have exposure to. Through exposure of the stereotypical reproduction process that is at work behind the scenes of the catwalk, young female
viewers may benefit.
Bian and Foxall (2013) and Halliwell and Dittmar’s (2004) research evidences that normal sized models are equally as effective in marketing compared to thin models.
Bian and Foxall (2013) found that thin models were only more effective when participants activated thin models from memory when images were framed in established
brands that currently used thin models. This raises a contradiction in the selections of model booking agents in Mears’ (2010) findings and the reality of marketing
effectiveness. Furthermore,Bian and Foxall (2013) found the health consciousness of participants significantly affected the perceived attractiveness of thin models,
meaning normal-sized models were favoured. This is crucial, as it highlights an area for intervention and establishes the effectiveness of critical facility in
practice.
Evaluation of results:
The results presented maintain a holistic approach, with studies sourced from a range of disciplines relevant to the dissertation subject. Each study maintained a
feminist research approach through contributing to uncovering feminist ethical dilemmas (Ackerly & Trew, 2010) of the negative implications of feminine aesthetic
ideals on female viewers.All studies examining women’s associations with thin idealised images of models (Bian & Foxall, 2013, Tiggemann & Polivy, 2010; Ahern, et al,
2008; Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004, Dittmar & Howard, 2004) provide justification for their exploration by acknowledging the high levels of body dissatisfaction amongst
women in the western world. Furthermore, Mears’ (2008, 2010) studies demonstrate a feminist approach through extensive feminist debate theorists in analysing results.
In terms of the dissertation, this strengthens the feminist informed approach maintained.
Furthermore, each study meets Reinharz’s (1992) criteria of feminist research andeach used a multiplicity of research methods.However, 8/10 usedthe same methods of
self-report scales and questionnaires. Self-report methods are effective in this context byproviding the participants’ own perspective to yield quantitative results,
and therefore allow access to phenomenological data within the participants own world (Barker, 2005). The main criticism of this method is validity (Barker, 2005),
however the majority of findings from each study have generated a similar overall response of the negative implications of exposure to feminine ideals on women. A
limitation in sampling within 7/10 studies, is that age range is limited to 16-35 year olds, with 6/10 samples made up of students. Halliwell and Dittmar (2004) noted
thisand actively aimed to recruit a diverse sample demographic, in line with the feminist research principle of representing diversity (Reinherz, 1992).
Mears (2008, 2010) ethnographical approaches allowed her to maintain a feminist approach as the researcher acted as a subject through participant observation and
developed special relations with those she was studying, becoming an interactive researcher (Rakow, 1992).
Overall, the research studies presented utilise quantitative (8/10 studies) and qualitative (2/10 studies) approaches to research. Whilst there is some diversity in
methods, the multiplicity of research methods is limited in favour of quantitative self-report methods. However, it is important to note that these methods were most
appropriate in the context of the phenomena being studied, as they give the women’s perspective (Barker, 2005) whilst providing quantifiable scientific data. Feminists
have begun to use qualitative approachesto research, after traditionally rejecting them as patriarchal means of data collection (Metso & Feuvre, 2006); the results
demonstrate that incorporating quantitative approaches into feminist research can help to deeply analyse issues affecting women’s lives and promote action to social
change.
The results demonstrate that the fashion industry’s projection of thinness and whiteness as feminine ideals are oppressive and operate as the dimension of fashion that
is detrimental to women, as narrow representations of women portrayed in fashion and the detrimental effects these have on women’s identity through a disjuncture in
appearance comparison. This opposes the dimension that is enjoyable and empowering for women. The results show that viewers’ awareness of the artificial and
unauthentic representations of embodied ideals can affect the associations that women make with unhealthily thin models. Therefore, it can be suggested that through
using fashion as a platform for raising feminist consciousness amongst young female viewers, the detrimental effects could be alleviated.
Analysis and Discussion
Each theme identified through the research conducted will be further analysed and discussed with reference to feminist theorists. The argument that feminism and
fashion can promote positive social change for female viewers will be strengthened, and will demonstrate how fashion can promote a positive representation of feminism.

Representation – The current fashion industry
Mears (2010) identified that in the absence of standards fashion producers reproduce and produce cultural ideals of beautytheirmodel selections; this isbased on
traditional stereotypicalconventions and maintains and createsfeminine ideals; this exploration is important as it highlights power relations and their associations
with ideals. To sell a product, an image must be sold first (Entwistle, 2009), this image is a narrow representation of femininity and catwalk models embody these
ideals of the female body and beauty (Craik, 2003). Beauty and thinness are valued within the fashion industry with few black or ethnic models (Entwistle, 2009) and
these images of perfection have become a dominant reality (Craik, 2003) which intensifies pressure to attainidealisation (Entwistle, 2009), manifesting in a culture
where one can never be thin enough (Bardo, 2003)
The fashion industry is comprised of ‘collective selection’, where decisions made by key professionals determine the ideals presented (Blumer, 1969); collective
decisions are socially produced through the social and cultural relations of designers, buyersand, as identified by Mears (2010), model booking agents. Selective
choices are determined by a professional’s immersion in fashion culture, meaning they are cultural mediators and innovators. Mears’ (2010) supports this, finding that
ideals are produced and reproduced the decisions of fashion producers. Through being immersed in the fashion industry context, the selective decisions made mediate and
reproduce ideals (Blumer, 1969). Equally, they maintain the power to innovate and produce cultural ideals towards change (Mears, 2010). However, booking agents defer
their decisions to market uncertainty (Mears, 2010) implying capitalist intentions dominate decisions, allowing fashion producers to excusetheir stereotypical
decisions that reproduce oppressive cultural ideals. Importantly, normal-sized models are equally as effective as thin idealised models in market consumption (Bian &
Foxall, 2013; Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004); highlighting that, despite calls to introduce more diverse body sizes to the catwalk (Bian & Foxall, 2013),the active
discriminatory decisions of fashion producers continue to select models based on attributes that fulfil narrow representations of feminine ideals.Fashion producers, as
a hegemonic group, maintain the power and influence to make selective decisions to introduce diverse representations of women from different intersections of society
to the catwalks and alter idealised beauty and desirablity. However, the fashion industry continues to reproduce and perpetuate sexism. Consequently, they control
gender performance by selecting models who embody markets relevant femininity (Mears, 2010). The fashion industry changes the idealsprojected through producers’
selections of looks and designs, meaning aesthetics are promoted and popularised (Entwistle, 2009). This highlights the potentialto change representations and an area
where feminism can evoke positive change for young women.
These representations have been criticised by feminists, specifically Wolf (1991) who maintains that the ideals of feminine culture propose the only means of women’s
fulfilment is through self-improvement. Further Vermeulen (2004) argues that the fashion industry isused by women to transform into appealing ideals through ‘stepping
obediently onto the treadmill’ (p.9). In protest, second-wave feminists adopted the ‘anti-fashion’ ideology by rejecting mainstream fashion (Steele, 1997) in order to
expose power hierarchies and feminist issues of gender and class (Suterwalla, 2013). However, Scott (2005) argues that the ideology merely conforms to another
particular style and representation within fashion; disputes relating to women’s self-adornment have been divisive within feminism (Sika, 2014) and Scott (2005) argues
that appearance is a fault-line between second-wave activists and women today.
Therefore, it is important to make a distinction; Wolf’s (1991) criticism is practically applicable to the detrimental effects of the patriarchal workings of the
fashion, however, it does not recognise the empowering and expressive dimension of fashion within women’s culture (Picardie, 2015; Gray, 2010; Raine, 2010; Evans &
Thornton, 1991). This distinction is imperative as Fawcett & Buckley (2002) argue the importance of dialogue between generations of feministsfor young women to engage;
to maintain this dialogue, feminists must uphold an understanding approach to women who enjoy and participate infashion (Raine, 2010), without disregarding the
oppressive dimension, this may enable a more positive view of feminism. Through this new generation feminist approach, it is possible to view fashion with potential to
be subversive and liberating (Picardie, 2015), opposed to denigrating fashion as a distraction to empowerment (Jacobson, 2010). Wilson (1985) establishes that fashion
can support male ideology, but also can be enjoyed by women through self-expression. This demonstrates the paradoxical nature of the industry,through this perspective
of fashion, it is possible to identify areas where feminism is necessary for positive change, whilst identifying the pleasurable aspects that offer meaning and
creativity to women (Yim, 2011; Wilson, 1985). Rejecting fashion would be unrealistic and impossible(Raine, 2010) whilststripping women of their right to autonomous
self-expression (Yim, 2011). Rejecting fashion would also be to ignore its power, as feminists can positively recruit fashion for political purposes (Sika, 2014; Pham,
2012).
Wolf’s (1991) criticisms of fashion can be applied to the patriarchal dimension, which is distinguishable from the enjoyable dimension within women’s culture
(Paulicelli & Wissinger, 2013). This allows ongoing intergenerational feminist dialoguewith the aim of improving women’s experiences (Wilson, 1985).Therefore, through
acknowledging women’s autonomous participation, as increasingly academic focus emphasises the pleasurable aspects of fashion (Jacobson, 2010), then a more realistic
view can be maintained through unifying feminists to achieve their goals, rather than allowing fashion to be divisive amongst feminists (Sika, 2014). Women can
therefore be exposed to feminist statements through the catwalk, as fashion is a platform that tells a story (Paulicelli & Wissinger, 2013); acting as a powerful
medium for young women towards their emancipation.

Identity
The implications of idealised representations on women’s identity will be explored using Tafjel and Turner’s (1979) social identity theory in relation to gendered
identity and power relations as products of patriarchy within western culture. This will reveal the negative impacts of gender expectations on women’s identities as
well as the potential for fashion to empower women’s identities, demonstrating how feminism and fashion can positively influence the experiences of women.
Our clothes ‘change our view of the world and change the world’s view of us’ (Woolf, 1999:120). Fashion is a conversation that women share (Picardie, 2015), it
navigates our relationships (Yim, 2011) and fundamentally proclaims our identity (Sika, 2014). Fashion communicates identity and is a social discourse (Hamilton,
2011); identity constitutes the meanings that define a person in relation to their society (Burke, 1980) and one’s appearance contributes to maintaining an identity
(Stone, 1982). Tafjel and Turner (1979) propose three levels of identity that women experience; personal, role and social, these levels will be explored within the
context of dominant social norms and gender expectations maintained within western culture.
A woman’s social identity is defined by her relation to social groups and fashion impacts this level most significantly (Sika, 2014). A woman’s dress is a powerful
signifier of her identity and subjectivity in public space (Beauvoir, 1949), and at this level, fashion categorises women’s identities through class division in terms
of those who can and cannot access it (Sika, 2014), which is supported by Mears (2010) who identified differences in constructions dependent upon class. A woman can
manipulate her social identity through self-image by altering the group she belongs to (Sika, 2014); this demonstrates the power of presentation and how women rely on
‘their appearance as crucialcurrency’ (Banyard, 2010:44). Social identity is formed through social categorisation, whereby a woman identifies with a group, adopts
their values and compares her group to others (Tafjel, 1979). Fashion can be a powerful signifier of a social group; non-conformist women, such as anti-fashion
feministshave used dress to rebel against the fashion industry by refusing to participate in it (Steele, 1970) to challenge power hierarchy and subvert traditional
identities (Suterwalla, 2015). However this wavers our power to influence fashion; feminists have successfully recruitedfashion to promote campaigns (Sika, 2014), for
example, the Suffragettes used dress to represent their cause (O’Connell, 2015) and defined themselves by what they wore (Picardie, 2015).
West & Zimmerman (1987) argue that gender is a matter of doing, meaning it can be undone, rather than simply being and Wilson (1985) argues that fashion defines and
redefines gender boundaries. Therefore, as identified by Mears (2008) femininity is placed onto bodies, through fashion producers selecting models with particular
attributes of which they believe constitutefemininity and beauty. Freud (1968) proposed that femininity denotes passivity and radical feminists have argued that the
fashion industry is a means of subordinating women through imprisoning them in their passive femininity (Swami et al, 2010); further Bartky (1990) and Wolf (1990)
argue that models reinforce images of idealised femininity, therefore, through decisions of fashion producers (Mears, 2008), femininity is a reproduction of gendered
power relations (Swami et al, 2010) and categorising gender regulates the normalisation of those oppressive structures (Butler, 2006).
A woman’s role identity refers to expectations and social meanings associated with the role a woman performs in society (Burke and Stets, 2000). Dress choices are
deemed socially acceptable or unacceptable in relation to the expected behaviour of the role a woman is performing; this is generally determined by age, and in roles
such as mothers or wives women are expected to behaviour modestly, compared to younger women who receive less criticism for making bolder dress choices (Sika, 2014).
Sika (2014) argues that older women are snubbed for making socially unacceptable dress choices that are acceptable for young women. This demonstrate deeper
conversations within fashion as a women’s autonomous self-presentation is entrenched in social values (Yim, 2011), which are associated with society’s gender
expectationsthat determine the role identity of women.Wolf (1990) views this as a regulating and disciplining women, keeping them in their subordinate social role.
Swami et al (2010) argue that disciplining women is also achieved through normalisation and self-surveillance, which is key in the maintenance of patriarchal power
relations as women voluntarily take action towards attaining idealised feminine bodies (Bartky, 1990). Furthermore, Wolf (1990) argues that exposure to models ensures
themaintenance of the subordination of women through their continuous struggle to achieve the beauty myth. Through gendered power relations and gender identities women
are primarily viewed based on their aesthetics as opposed to their characteristics and personalityand (Bordo, 1993; Bartky, 1990). Swami et al (2010) argue that this
culture reduces women to objectification and women’s competencies are ignored (Wolf, 1990). Women are reduced to products for visual pleasure which constitutes gender
oppression (Bartky, 1990);this strips women of their identities and contributes to the justification of violence against women (Kilbourne, 2010), contributing to a
dangerous and unsafe culture for women to live in. The objectification of women has traditionally been associated with men (McKee, 2005) however, self-objectification
has now become a focus as well as the objectification of women, by women (Levy, 2005; Strelan & Hargreaves, 2005). Harper & Tiggemann (2007) found that exposure to
images of thin models, increased self-objectification; this was based on Frederickson and Roberts’ (1997) objectification theory which recognises that the female body
is subjected to evaluation and inspection, as an object of value to others. This demonstrates the influence the fashion industry has through glamorising thinness,
which has dictated the terms of idealised beauty (Bardo, 2003). Banyard (2010) argues that this stigmatisation and objectification of the female body is ‘on a scale
like never before’ (p.43) which intrinsically linked with gender inequality; this has led to women feeling inadequate about their physical appearance (Swami, et al,
2010) which has driven women to pursue unattainable ideals, of which few come close and those who do rarely gain power or social respect (Collins, 2011).
Personal identity is associated how a woman views herself (Tafjel& Turner, 1979). Fashion choices are not constrained by expectation butbased on what makes a woman
feel confident and happy, and at this level self-esteem, well-being and internalised beliefs are most detrimentally effected (Sika, 2014).Conversely,this level is
where empowerment is most effective. Idealised representationsshape perceptions young female have of themselves,causingthem to imagine defects (Craik, 2003) through
social comparison (Tiggemann & Polivy, 2010). Inevitably, this ideal is unattainable(Collins, 2011) and women are left feeling unauthentic which makes the female body
a site for oppression (Smolak & Murnan, 2007). This can result in low mood, body dissatisfaction and body-focused anxiety (Tiggemann & Polivy, 2010, Harper &
Tiggemann, 2007; Dittmar & Howard, 2004).
Bardo (2003) argues thinness dominates eating disorder discussions and Ahern et al (2008) found that viewing images of thin models resulted in an increased drive for
thinness and eating disorder symptoms (Ahern et al, 2008). Young people are besieged with the message that fat is abhorrent, and one can never be thin enough (Bardo,
2003) meaning they lack distinction between what is required of them compared to models (Craik, 2003). Banyard (2010) identifies eating disorders as logical gender
inequality, which has resulted in women’s persistent self-surveillance (Bartky, 1990).
Exploring fashion’s influences over women’s identities and the associated gender power relations, enables the identification of the levels at which the patriarchal
dimension of fashion can affect women. Whilst societal expectations influence a woman’s role and social identity, personal identity seems most significant at which
intervention would benefit the well-being of women susceptible to the detrimental effects of the fashion industry.
Consciousness– A Way Forward
Feminists have persistently argued that fashion objectifies women (Sika, 2014; Raine, 2010) and the research results demonstrate the oppressive potential the fashion
industry has over women in terms of idealised beauty and serving gender inequality through gendered power relations and gender identity; it is the objectifying and
oppressive manifestations of femininity perpetuated by the fashion industry that feminists have criticised (Wissinger, 2013).However, it is important to recognise that
this oppressive nature is a product of with wider patriarchal social expectations of women that contribute to objectification and subordination, identified by Butler,
(2006) andWolf(1990). It is critical that the patriarchal dimension of fashion does not tarnish the entire industry by realising that “not everything born out of
patriarchy and fashion is oppressive to women” (Sika, 2014:1); rejecting fashion as oppressive ignores its political meanings and rich culture (Boycott, 2007) and
Wilson (2000), fashion is imperative within culture for communication and modernity.
Fashion can be positive for women (Picardie, 2015, Raine, 2010, Boycott, 2007, Scott, 2005, Showalter, 1995)as it allows women the right to be autonomous (Yim, 2011),
happy and contribute towards self-acceptance (Sika, 2014). It is important to realise that, similar to second-wave feminists who supported autonomous choice in self-
fashioning (Steele, 1997), fashion can be appropriated as a symbol of a woman’s independence (Boycott, 2007). Furthermore, freedom of thought and expression can
articulated through fashion (Yim, 2011), and Mill (1859) argues that authenticity can be reached through experiencing alternative beliefs. Therefore, it is possible
for women as moral agents to experience, through the catwalk as a platform for feminist messages, alternative feminist views which can contribute to them reaching
authenticity in their autonomy, whichare fundamental human rights (Yim, 2011). Feminists can enjoy fashion without being condemned (Sika, 2014);finding it pleasurable
does not make women a ‘dupe of fashion’ or a ‘plaything of men’ (Scott, 2005:1). Further, through women have embraced fashion and beautification (Collins, 2011) and as
women have become more economically independent, they have chosen to spend more on their appearance (Boycott, 2007).
In order to fully achieve the objective of liberating women through fashion and feminism by alleviating the detrimental effects on women, men and male-dominated
powercan no longer be blamed (Collins, 2011; Levy, 2005). Instead, females must be equipped with skills to resist culturally oppressive ideals of appearance (Collins,
2011). This can be achieved through feminist consciousnessthis can a) provide female viewers of fashion with a critical perspective of the industry with awareness of
superficial constructions of ideals identified by the research findings, and b) create feminist dialogue within popular culture which will bring feminist issues to the
public forum.The following section will explore feminist consciousness and demonstrate the benefits of this with reference to the research findings, andmoments within
popular culture that have successfully and positively promoted feminism and feminist goals will also be identified.
Feminist Consciousness:
Traditionally, feminist consciousness is considered as a transformation for women in altering their perception of everyday life (Green, 1979) to become aware of their
subordination and realising and acting upon the possibilities for a societal re-organisation based on the equality of women and men (Lerner, 1994). The need for
consciousness was established as women could not experience and act upon their authentic self in a society that constructed a subordinate and objectified image of
women (Colker, 1992); whilst feminist consciousness was criticised for stereotyping women as subjective knowledge seekers, it aided women in breaking their silencing
through enabling women to value their identity by affirming their experiences which equipped women to live in a society that devalued them (Colker, 1992). Whilst a
more contemporary view of feminist consciousness-raising is available (Sowards & Renegar, 2004), this view is still applicable to how the identities of women today can
be detrimentally affected by the patriarchal nature of fashion. As identified, women’s social and role identity can be restricted by oppressive gender expectations of
women which can limit their fashion choices (Sika, 2014). These gender distinctions deter women from reaching consciousness and consequently deter them from reaching
their aspirations and an authentic sense of self (Colker, 1992). In terms of freedom of dress, this demonstrates how gendered identities and expectations limit a
woman’s ability to experience full authenticity within autonomy (Yim, 2011); importantly, when that freedom of choice is restricted or taken away, those restrictions
become an abuse of power (Yim, 2011). Therefore, women still experience restrictions on their freedom of choice regarding self-fashioning due to the maintenance of
oppressive social expectations.In terms of pursuing authenticity, which is fundamental to quality of life (Yim, 2011), feminist consciousness-raising benefited women
by encouraging them to make decisions based on listening to their inner voice and considering a range of social messages, as opposed to unreflectively accepting an
oppressive, dominant culture (Colker, 1992).
Fundamental to traditional feminist consciousness-raising, and relevant to the dissertation’s aims, was dialogue; this is a conversation that primarily aims to allow
those involved to learn, grow and change as a result of listening to differing views (Swidler, 1983). This does not involve forcing another person to accept one’s own
values, but to aid our own understanding of our relationship and role within our society (Swidler, 1983). Through making feminist statements on the catwalk and within
fashion, this dialogue can be introduced. Sowards and Regner (2004) argue that the contemporary public sphere requires feminist consciousness-raising to alter its
functions and style; including using popular culture for consciousness-raising for young women. Wong (2003)argued that through popular culture, young women identify
with strong and independent female icons. Furthermore, many young female viewers become empowered through their exposure to these females which encourages their
reflection of their own oppression, contributing to empowerment (Sowards & Renegar, 2004). Within contemporary popular culture, this has been achieved by female
celebrities such as Emma Watson, who used her profile to open a feminist dialogue amongst young women; Watson backed the ‘HeForShe’ campaign which has ‘changed the
conversation of feminism’ (Lechliter, 2014:1). In addition,Chanel’s feminism themed SS15 catwalk showed models holding ‘HeforShe’ placards as a feminist protest.
Whilst this has been recognised as an accessible means of female empowerment for young women interested in fashion (Willemse, 2015), it has been criticised for its
contradictory use of skinny, white models to promote feminism’s cause (Cosslett, 2014). This demonstrates how co-opting fashion and feminism has the potential for a
contemporary means of feminist consciousness-raising, however in order to be fully effective, feminism must intervene in the patriarchal dimension of fashion that has
contributed to the objectification of women through narrow representations of women, which primarily involves body-size diversity (Mears, 2008).
Body Size Diversity:
The need for body type diversity on the catwalks was the main finding that arose from the research, as the use of thin idealised and underweight models had problematic
implications for the self-perception of female viewers (Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004). Dittmar and Howard (2004) found that those who were most immersed in a context that
valued the thin-ideal suffered greater body-dissatisfaction; in western culture where thinness is idealised, young women cannot escape the ubiquitous emphasis on this
ideal (Bardo, 2003), therefore it could be suggested that altering idealised images to be more representative and realistic, may alleviate the pressures for young
women to attempt to pursue unhealthy bodily ideals. This is critical as normal-sized models are equally as effective in marketing (Bian & Foxall, 2013; Halliwell &
Dittmar, 2004). Mears (2008) found that models booking agents refused to consider signing catwalk models who did not fit within the accepted size conventions; this is
significant when normal-sized models are equally effective, and Halliwell and Dittmar (2004) argue that if this was adopted in practice, then body-focused anxiety
could be avoided for many women. In addition to body-size diversity, awareness raising focussing on the systematic inequalities that function in the fashion industry
including the reluctance of fashion producers to book models with diverse body types could allow female viewers to think more critically about the industry. Using
normal-sized models would portray realistic representations and serve as an implicit feminist intervention to alleviate the negative impacts of the current fashion
industry by promoting positive body image (Bian & Foxall, 2013).
Awareness of representations:
In support of promoting feminist consciousness-raising to allow young female viewers who are susceptible to thin idealised images, the research conducted found that
awareness interrupted the internalisation process of valuing thin idealised images; specifically, normal-sized models were viewed more positively than small-sized
models due to health consciousness (Bian & Foxall, 2013). This demonstrates the benefits of critical facility when being exposed to images of idealised thinness.
Furthermore, Slater et al (2012) found that adding warning labels to fashion spreads usingthin idealised models that had been re-touched, resulted in lower levels of
body dissatisfaction for viewers, which further supports the benefits of raising awareness of the artificial and constructed nature of images portrayed by fashion.
Mears’ (2008) explorations of the harsh, rigorous routines that catwalk models undergo to attempt to embody feminine beauty ideals is also critical, as awareness of
these regimes demonstrate that even models struggle to attain them; Mears (2008) argued that this disciplining process must be concealed from consumers, in order for
them to believe the beauty myth and buy into that culture. It is possible that greater awareness of the process that fashion models undergo, including health
consciousness, may alter the attitudes of viewers leading to change in the use of normal-sized catwalk models. Therefore, it is crucial that female viewers fashion,
with constant exposure to narrow idealised images (Bordo, 2003), are equipped as best possible to view the fashion industry through a critical lens; this can be
achieved through feminist consciousness, which encourages a critical perspective of social and personal injustices (Sowards & Renegar, 2004).
Critical Facility in Practice:
Perfected images have dominated our reality and promoted thinness as a beauty norm, meaning young people are growing up in a culture where fat is evil and they can
never be thin enough (Bordo, 2003). In order to overcome this, there are movements that aim to instil critical facility in young people in order to aid their
resistance of idealised and damaging norms. ‘The Self-Esteem Team’ (2015) provide workshops and presentations for students and young people to encourage critical
facility in relation to body-image dissatisfaction, eating disorders and mental health. The founders Devon and Crilly (2015) claim that there has been an increase of
young people accessing mental health services due to body dissatisfaction, and argue this is the result of the media turning the body into a commodity that is never
perfect enough. Therefore, through providing sessions for young people regarding the psychological and emotional implications of body-image, they encourage young
people to view ideals promoted by the media critically. This is imperative as females hating their self-image and bodies has become an accepted, normal part of our
everyday lives and females have become accustomed to this, to an extent where cosmetic surgery and eating disorders are a logical means to achieve idealised perfection
(Banyard, 2010). Further, this has created a culture where increasingly, young people are accessing mental health services due to body dissatisfaction (Devon and
Crilly, 2015). This practical intervention for working with young people suffering from the detrimental effects of idealised images, demonstrates how awareness raising
and critical facility can benefit communities by improving the well-being of young people; this is transferable as feminism could recruit fashion as a creative means
to interact with vulnerable young women through creative and interactive workshops in the community.
Collins (2011) also offers a transferable practical intervention to promote viewing beauty ideals critically amongst young girls. Collins (2011) focusses on the Barbie
doll as detrimental to the beauty ideals upheld by young girls, and suggests that Barbie can be recruited to encourage young girls to open up questions of beauty and
self-image. Collins’ (2011) suggestion is transferable to fashion; fashion can be enlisted to encourage young women to, through critical facility and feminist
consciousness, question and open up a dialogue about beauty ideals and body-image. Enacting an alternative could help to undo values, allowing women to ‘engage
critically, creatively and joyfully… without mocking their vanity or depriving them of fun’ (Collins, 2011:163).
Further to specifically focussing on body-image and body-dissatisfaction as primary detrimental products of oppressive beauty norms that permeate the catwalk, opening
up a feminist dialogue through fashion could expose young women to wider feminist issues of injustice such as domestic violence and rape. Banyard (2010) argues that
awakening women to issues of gender inequality supports social justice and the more people who are aware of this inequality, the more things can change. Therefore
using fashion, an industry that primarily targets female consumers (Sika, 2014), the industry has the potential to raise awareness and emphasise feminist issues of
social justice and inequality within the public forum.
A way forward – How the fashion industry can be non-oppressive
Fashioncan be used as a medium for raising the profile of feminism (Sika, 2014) and consequently feminist consciousness. However, this is not without its challenges;
the divisiveness of gender politics within feminism (Paulicelli &Wissinger, 2013) must be reconciled and stereotypical negative perceptions of feminism must be
overcome.
Unity – Challenges to Feminism:
“Without community there is no liberation” (Lorde, 2007:2) and in order for young women to experience themselves as unified subjects, there must be a continuing and
creative intergenerational dialogue between feminists, in order for them to engage with the unceasing issues that women face within the politics of self-presentation
(Fawcett & Buckley, 2000). The divisiveness of the politics of appearance amongst feminists serves to separate which creates challenges in the attainment of feminist
goals; feminists must unify to support each other’s efforts (Sika, 2014) to reach their ultimate common goals of female liberation (Bradley, 2004) and the eradication
of inequality (Bell, 2012). “Divide and conquer must become define and empower” (Lorde, 2007:2).
The F-Word – Challenges to the perception of Feminism:
Beck, in 1998 argued that the media rarely portrayed feminism positively, and the challenges that feminism faced was often traced back to negative media portrayals.
This view still stands today, though Maseman (2012) argues that misconceptions around feminism, which is usually that feminists hate men, are purposefully distorted
which has created a negative backlash. Maseman (2012) argues that these distorted views are misogynist forms of silencing empowered women. This is demonstrated by
Giffart (2011) who found that self-identified feminists would practice their ideologies, whilst refraining from openly labelling their practices as feminist. Giffart
(2011) found that this reluctance to explicitly identify ideologies was due to fear of social and political responses. Beck (1998) argues that the way popular culture,
specifically the media, portrays feminism effects whether it is accepted or rejected by viewers. Whilst there have been some significant moments within popular culture
that have supported feminism, such as Beyoncé’s ‘FEMINIST’ backdrop (Figure 8) during a performance in 2014 and the increasing representation of ageing (Whelehan &
Gwynn, 2014), demonstrated in Dolce & Gabbana’s SS15 campaign (Figure 9), a negative representation of feminism remains (Mendick, 2013).
These momentsrefute McRobbie’s (2004) view that feminism is associated with ‘unglamorous women’ (p.255), demonstrating potential for fashion to represent a positive,
identifiable image of feminism for young women. However, Mendick (2013) argues that portrayals are regressive and dismiss feminism as relevant.
This challenge is supported by Sowards and Renegar (2004) who argue that feminism is generally perceived as unnecessary as equality has been attained, creating a
feminist backlash and negative stereotypes of contemporary feminism. Therefore, feminists today face the challenge of proving the existence of covert inequalities and
subtle forms of discrimination in order to create greater identification (Sowards & Renegar, 2004). Banyard (2010) settles the post-feminism debate by claiming that
women’s objectification is cloaked in a ‘rhetoric of choice and empowerment’ (p.43), which consists of the options to either wear sexy clothing or participate in
laddish behaviour (Mendick, 2013). Therefore, there is still much more to be done in order for a genuinely positive representation of feminism to be achieved.
Towards diversity:
Feminism and fashion could also work together to build more positive, inclusive and representative images of women on catwalks to combat the implications of social
comparison and the negative effects of internalising thin ideals. There have been some steps towards this, including Rick Owen’s Paris Fashion Week catwalk show in
2014 where models were predominantly black and muscular (Figure 10); this defiantly opposed the thin, white model which has been traditionally idealised within fashion
(Long, 2014). Recently, France passed a ban on the use of underweight catwalk models to preventthe promotion of unnatural thinness and anorexia (BBC News, 2015).
However, this move has received criticism for the mandating of acceptable body types, with calls for body-size diversity as a more effective intervention (Lynch,
2015). Whilst plus-size models were used on the Chromat catwalk during New York Fashion Week, 2014 (Figure 11), a lack of body type diversity remains within fashion
(Holmes, 2014).

Conclusion:
Feminists have recruited fashion throughout history to promote their campaigns (Sika, 2014) and it has been used to make political statements to promote the status of
women (Evans & Thornton, 1989). Whilst this ongoing relationship has been uneasy and complex (Picardie, 2015), it has nonetheless been successful (Sika, 2014).
‘Fashion is a platform that tells a story’ (Paulicelli & Wissinger, 2013) and continues to be a means of expression and female empowerment (Gray, 2010). Through a
secondary research strategy method with a feminist theoretical approach, this research has demonstrated that fashion and the catwalk canbe used to create a dialogue
and open the conversation of gender inequality and social injustice within the public forum. However, this requires unity amongst feminists to overcome the challenges
faced (Sika, 2014; Lorde, 2007),which includes overcoming negative perceptions of feminism that still exist. Opening a feminist dialogue and creating feminist
consciousness can allow women to experience their own authenticity (Yim, 2011), outside the confines of femininity; the positive promotion of feminism by fashion can
enable female viewers to realise their oppression by raising feminist issues within the public forum. Furthermore, feminist intervention through raising feminist
consciousness and critical awareness can positively influence young women by creating body-size diversity on the catwalks, in order to promote positive body-image,
self-esteem and consequently, mental and emotional well-being (Crilly & Devon, 2015). Raising consciousness through fashion can equip young women with critical
facility (Collins, 2011) to view social injustices that may affect their lives,such as violence against women and oppressive media representations (Cosslett & Baxter,
2013), allowing them to step out of the confines of gender oppression and become leaders within their communities.
References:
Ackerly, B. & Trew, J. (2010) Doing Feminist Research In Political & Social Science, Palgrave MacMillan: London
Alese, O. & Hassan, M. (2011) The Role of Women’s Creativity and Innovations in the Nigerian Informal Sector of Oke Ogun Zone, International Education Studies, 4:213-
224
Auene, K. (2015) Feminist Ethnography, Sage Reference, Online, Available: http://www.sagepub.com/ritzerintro/study/materials/reference/77708_3.2r.pdf Accessed:
12/04/2015
Baumgardner, J. & Richards, A. (2000) Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism and the Future, Farrar, Straus and Giroux: New York
Banyard, K. (2010) The Equality Illusion: The Truth about Women and Men Today, Faber and Faber: London
Barker, C. (2005) Self-Report Methods, in (Ed.) Barker, C., Pistrang, N., & Elliot, R., Research Methods in Clinical Psychology, Wiley: Oxford
Barnard, M. (2002) Fashion as Communication, Routledge: Oxo
Barthes, R. (1967) The Fashion System, University of California Press: California
Bartky, S. L. (1990), Femininity and Domination: Studies in the Phenomenology of Oppression Routledge: New York
BBC News (2015) France MP’s Back Ban on Skinny Catwalk Models, Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-32174364 Accessed: 22/04/2015
Beauvoir, S., (1949) The Second Sex, Vintage Classics: London
Beck, D. (1998) The F-Word: How the Media Frame Feminism, NWSA Journal, 10:139-153
Begum, T. (2015) Fashion and Feminism, XXY Magazine, Avilable: http://xxymagazine.com/fashion-and-feminism/ Last Accessed: 23/02/15
Bell, C. (2012) Hermione Granger Saves the World: Essays on the Feminist Heroine of Hogwarts, McFarland and Co: California
Blumer, H. (1969) Fashion: From Class Difference to Collective Selection, The Sociological Quarterly, 10:275-291
Bordo, S. (2003) Never Just Pictures, in (Ed.) Jones, A., The Feminism and Visual Culture Reader, Routledge: London
Bordo, S. (1993) Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture and the Body, University of California Press: Berkeley
Boycott, R. (2007) What I See in the Mirror, The Guardian: Fashion Supplement, 14TH April, Available:
http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2007/apr/14/fashion.beauty1 Accessed: 21/04/2015
Butler, J. (2006) Imitation and Gender Insubordination, in (Ed.) Storey, J., Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: A Reader, Volume 1, Pearson Education: Essex
Burke, P., and Stets, J. (2000) Identity Theory and Social Identity Theory, Social Psychology Quarterly, 63:244-237
Burke, P. (1980) The Self: Measurement Implications from a Symbolic Interactionist Perspective, Social Psychology Quarterly, 43:18-29
Bradley, P. (2004) Mass Media and the Shaping of American Feminism 1963-1975, The University Press of Mississippi: Mississippi
Bruzzi, S. & Gibson, P. (2013) Fashion Cultures Revisited: Theories, Explanations and Analysis, Routledge: London
Cartner-Morely, J. (2015) The Timeless Coco Chanel, The Guardian, The Style Supplement, Available: http://www.theguardian.com/coco-before-chanel/interactive/jess-
cartner-morley-coco-chanel Last Accessed: 23/02/15
Collins, L. (2011) Fashion Dolls and Feminism: How Do You Solve a Problem Like Barbie? in (Ed.) Wolfendale, J., & Kennet, J., (2011) Fashion Philosophy for Everyone,
Blackwell: Oxford
Comerasamy, H. (2012) Literature Search Research Methodology, Available: http://www.slideshare.net/huguette_comerasamy/literature-based-research-methodology Accessed:
23/04/2015
Cosslett, R. & Baxter, H. (2013) The Five Main Issues Facing Modern Feminism, New Statesman: The V Spot, 20th May, Available: http://www.newstatesman.com/v-
spot/2013/05/five-main-issues-facing-modern-feminism Accessed: 22/04/15
Cosslett, R. (2014) Chanel: Co-Opting Feminism at Paris Fashion Week, The Guardian, 30th September, Available:
http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/sep/30/chanel-karl-lagerfeld-feminism-paris-fashion-week Accessed: 21/04/2015
Craik, J. (2003) The Face of Fashion: Cultural Studies in Fashion, Routledge: London
Crilly, L. & Devon, N. (2015) The Fundamentals: A Guide for Teachers, Parents and Carers on Mental Health and Self-Esteem, John Blake Publishing: London
Dixon, R., (2009) Coco Before Chanel: ‘She was Claiming Freedom Through her Designs’, The Guardian: Life and Style Supplement, Available:
http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2009/jul/31/coco-before-chanel Accessed: 16/04/2015
Dyhouse, C. (2010) Glamour: Women, History, Feminism, Zed Books: London
English, B. (2013) Cultural History of Fashion in the 20th and 21st Centuries: From Catwalk to Sidewalk, 2nd Ed., London: Bloomsbury
Entwistle, J. (2009) The Aesthetics of Economy of Fashion: Markets andValue in Clothing and Modelling, Berg: New York
Evans, C. & Thornton, M. (1991) Fashion, Representation, Femininity, Feminist Review, 38:48-66
Evans, C. and Thornton, M. (1989) Women and Fashion: A New Look, Quartet: LONDON
The Equal Pay Act 1970, London:HMSO
Fawcett, H. & Buckley, C. (2002) Fashioning the Feminine: Representation and Women’s Fashion from the Fin de Siècle to the Present, I.B. Taurus: London
Feldman, J. (2014) The Three Stylish Grandmas from Dolce & Gabbana’s New Ad will Make Your Day, Available: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/12/23/dolce-gabbana-
grandmas-campaign-spring-2015_n_6374238.html Accessed: 23/04/2015
Finnegan, M. (1999) Selling Suffrage: Consumer Culture and Votes for Women, Columbia: University Press
Frederickson, B., and Roberts, T. (1997) Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women’s Experiences and Mental Health Risks, Psychology of Women’s Quarterly,
21:173-206
Freud, S. (1968) The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, (Ed.) Strachey, J., The Hogarth Press: London
Gundy, A. (2014) Feminist Theory, Crime and Social Justice, London: Routledge
Gray, F (2010) Dispatches From the Other, New York Times, 27 May 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/30/books/review/Gray-t.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 Accessed:
18/02/2015
Hamilton, A. (2011) The Aesthetics of Design, in (Ed.) Wolfendale, J., & Kennet, J., (2011) Fashion Philosophy for Everyone, Blackwell: Oxford
Hillman, B. (2013) The Clothes I Wear Help Me to Know My Own Power, Journal of Women’s Studies, 34: 2, 155
Holmes, S. (2014) More than Just a Trend? Women of all Sizes on the New York Fashion Week Runways, Elle: Fashion News,
Available:http://www.elle.com/fashion/news/a15557/plus-size-models-on-the-runway/ Accessed: 22/04/15
Jacobson, L. (2010) Fashion, Feminism and the Perils of Consumer Fantasy, Journal of Women’s History, 22:178-187
Keay, K. (1986) Dress Optional: Fashion and Feminism, in Thirdway September 1986, Available: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yA8IVdcXTTEC&pg=PA18&dq=1980s+fashion
+feminism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=nIPsVKTKI4X3UtGohMAN&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=1980s%20fashion%20feminism&f=false Accessed: 12/03/15
Kilbourne, J. (2010) Killing us Softly 4: Advertising’s Images of Women, DVD, (Ed.) Jholly, S. & Killoy, A.
Kosar, J. (2010) Women’s Responses to Fashion Media Images: A Study of Female Consumers Aged 30-59, International Journal of Consumer Studies, 34:272-278
Kulsar, Z. (2011) A Critique of Post-Feminism, Americana, Available: http://americanaejournal.hu/vol7no2/kulcsar Accessed:02/03/15
Kwon, YH., (1994) The Influence of Appropriateness of Dress and Gender on The Self-Perception of Occupational Attributes, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 12:
33-39
Lechliter, J. (2014) Emma Watson’s He For She UN Speech on Gender Equality, Conscious Magazine,Available: http://consciousmagazine.co/heforshe/ Accessed: 21/04/2015
Ledwith, M. (2011) Community Development: A Critical Approach, 2nd Ed., Bristol: Policy Press
Lerner, G. (1994) The Creation of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle-Ages to Eighteen-Sevenety, Oxford University Press: Oxford
Levy, A. (2005) Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture, Free Press: New York
Long, C. (2014) Feminism is Back in Fashion, Financial Times: Style Supplement, Available:http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/aa71a6bc-7de1-11e3-95dd-
00144feabdc0.html#axzz2qqWmZsS2 Accessed: 22/04/2015
Lorde, A. (2007) Sister Outsider, Crossing Press: Berkeley
Luckett, M. (2000) Performing Masculinities, in S. Bruzzi, and P. Church-Gibson, (2000) Fashion Cultures: Theories, Explorations and Analysis, 1st Ed., Routledge: Oxon
Lynch, A. (2015) France Considers Move to Ban Skinny Models to Prevent the ‘Glorification of Anorexia’, Metro: Lifestyle, 16th March, Available:
http://metro.co.uk/2015/03/16/france-considers-move-to-ban-skinny-models-to-prevent-the-glorification-of-anorexia-5106258/ Accessed: 22/04/15
Matyszyk, (2010) Johnny Depp.. Heath Ledger.. Cut!, The Examiner: General Recreational Supplement, 12th March, Available: http://www.examiner.com/article/johnny-depp-
heath-ledger-nicole-kidman-cut Accessed: 23/04/2015
Maseman, K. (2012) Perceptions of Feminism, The Journal: Features Supplement, 9th October, Available: http://uisjournal.com/features/2012/10/09/perceptions-on-
feminism/ Accessed: 22/04/15
McKee, A. (2005). The Objectification of Women in Mainstream Pornographic Videos in Australia, Journal of Sex Research, 42:277–290
McRobbie, A. (2011) Beyond Post-Feminism, Juncture: Public Policy Research, 3:179-184
McRobbie, A. (2004) Post-Feminism and Popular Culture, Feminist Media Studies, 4:255-264, Routledge
McQuarrie, E. (2005) The Market Research Toolbox: A Concise Guide for Beginners, Sage: London
Mendick, H. (2013) Media Representations, Gender and Education Association, 15th January, Available: http://www.genderandeducation.com/resources/contexts/media-
coverage/ Accessed: 22/04/2015
Met Museum, (2015) Gabrielle ‘Coco’ Chanel (1883- 1971) and the House of Chanel, Available:http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/chnl/hd_chnl.htm Accessed: 23/04/2015
Metso, M., & Feuvre, N., (2006) Quantitative Methods for Analysing Gender, Ethnicity and Migration, Research Integration, Available:
http://www.york.ac.uk/res/researchintegration/Integrative_Research_Methods/Metso%20and%20Le%20Feuvre%20Quantitative%20Methods%20April%202007.pdf Accessed: 15/04/15
Mill, J. (1859) On Liberty, Walter Scott: New York
Mock, J. (2014) My Feminist Awakening and the Influence of Beyoncé’s Pop Culture Declaration, Available: http://janetmock.com/2014/09/03/beyonce-feminist-mtv-vmas/
Accessed: 23/04/2015
Mower, S. (2013) Prada Spring 2014 RTW, Vogue: Fashion Shows, September 19th, 2013, Available: http://www.vogue.com/fashion-week/862038/prada-spring-2014/ Accessed:
16/04/2015
Morrissey, L. & Lewin, T. (2010) Resources on Women’s Empowerment: Films, Photos, Auiovisuals and Music, Development, 53:280-285
NHS Reorganisation Act, 1973, London: HMSO
O’Connell, T., (2015) Suffragettes, Chic Even in Battle, Available:http://www.dandizettes.com/dandizettes/suffragettes-chic-even-in-battle/ Accessed: 20/04/15
Paulicelli, E. & Wissinger, E. (2013) Introduction, Women’s Studies Quarterly, 41: 14-25
Passerini, L. (2007) Memory and Utopia: The Primacy of Intersubjectivity, Equinox: London
Picardie, J., (2015) The Language of Fashion, 5th February, Vogue: Fashion News, Available: http://www.harpersbazaar.co.uk/fashion/fashion-news/the-language-of-
fashion-justine-picardie Accessed: 20/04/2015
Picardie, J. (2011) Coco Chanel: The Legend and the Life, Steidl: Gottingen
Pham, M. (2012) If the Clothes Fit: A Feminist Takes on Fashion, Ms. Magazine, 17th January 2012
Radner, H.& Smith, N. (2013), Fashion, Feminism and the Neo-feminist Ideal, in S. Bruzzi and P. Church-Gibson (2013), Fashion Cultures revisited: Theories,
Explanations and Analysis, 2nd Ed., Routledge: Oxon
Raine, E. (2010) The F-Word: Emily Raine Finds a Place for Fashion in Feminism, Threadbared, Available:
https://iheartthreadbared.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/thefword.pdf Accessed: 12/03/2015
Rakow, L. (1992) Women Making Meaning: New Feminist Directions in Communication, Routledge: New York
Rakow, L. & Wackowitz, L. (2004) Feminist Communication Theory: Selections in Context, Sage: Thousand Oaks
Reinharz, S., (1992) Feminist Methods in Social Research, Oxford University Press: New York
Robinson, K. (2011) Out of Our Minds: Learning to be Creative, 2nd Ed., Chichester: Capstone
Sarikaski, K., Rush, K., Grubb-Swetnam, A., & Lane, C. (2009) Feminist Theory and Research, in (Ed.) Stacks, D., & Salwen, M., An Integrated Approach to Communication
Theory and Measurement, Taylor and Francis: New York
Sawchuk, L. (1988) A Tale of Inscription/Fashion Statements, in A. Kroker and M. Kroker, Body Invaders: Sexuality and the Postmodern Condition. MacMillan: Hampshire
Scott, L. (2005) Fresh Lipstick: Redressing Fashion and Feminism, Palgrave Macmillan: New York
Setyaningsih, S., Rucita, C., Hani, U. & Rachmania, I. (2012) Women Empowerment Through Creative Industry, Procedia Economics and Finance, 4:213 – 222
Sex Discrimination Act, 1975, London: HMSO
Sharkey, L. (2014) Karl Lagerfeld’s Response to Chanel’s Feminist Protest Criticism, The Independent: Fashion News Supplement, 16th October, Available:
http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/news/karl-lagerfelds-response-to-chanels-feminist-protest-criticism-9799805.html Accessed: 23/04/2015
Showalter, E. (1995) The Professor Wore Prada, Upfront, Vogue, Available: https://iheartthreadbared.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/upfront.pdf Accessed:05/03/15
Simmel, G. (1957) Fashion, The American Journal of Sociology, 62:541-558
Skiva, V, (2014) Fashion for Feminists: How Fashion and Dress Shape Women’s Identities, January 10th, Open Society for Initiative for Southern Africa, Available:
http://www.osisa.org/buwa/regional/fashion-feminists-how-fashion-and-dress-shape-women%E2%80%99s-identities Accessed: 19/04/2015
Sowards, S. & Renegar, V., (2004) The Rhetorical Functions of Consciousness-Raising in Third Wave Feminism, Communication Studies, 55:535-552
Suterwalla, S. (2013) Fashioning Gender Difference the 1970’s-Present, in Women’s Studies Quarterly, 2013 41:1-2
Steele, V. (1997) Anti-Fashion: The 1970’s, Journal of Dress, Body and Culture, 1: 279-296
Steele, V. (1991) Women of Fashion: Twentieth Century Designers, Rizzoli International: New York
Smolak, L., & Murnen, S. K. (2007). Feminism and body image, in (Eds.) Swami,V. and Furnham, A., Body Beautiful: Evolutionary and Sociocultural Perspectives,
Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan
Stone, A. (1982) Autobiographic Occasions and Original Acts: Versions of American Identity, University of Pennsylvania Press: Pennsylvania
Strelan, P., & Hargreaves, D. (2005). Women who objectify other women: The Vicious Cycle of Objectification. Sex Roles, 52:707–712
Swami, V., Coles, R., Wyrozumska, K., Wilson, E., Salem, N., and Furnham, A. (2010) Oppressive Beliefs at Play: Associations Among Beauty Ideals and Practices and
Individual Differences in Sexism, Objectification of Other and Media Exposure, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34:365-379
Swidler, L. (1983) Dialogue Decalogue: Ground Rules for Interreligious, Intercultural Dialogue, Melanesian Journal of Theology, 1:187-193
Tafjel, H., and Turner, J. (1979) The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behaviour, in (Eds.) Worchel, S. and AustinW., Psychology of Intergroup Relations, Nelson-
Hall: Chicago
The Self-Esteem Team (2015) What We Do, Online, Available: http://www.selfesteemteam.org/whatwedo Accessed:22/04/2015
Vermeulen, S. (2004) Stitched-Up: Who Fashions Women’s Lives?, Jacana: Johannesburg
Whelehan, I. & Gwynne, J. (2014) Aging Popular Culture and Contemporary Feminism, Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke
Whistles, (2014) Unisex Feminist Logo T-Shirt, Available: http://www.whistles.com/women/clothing/jersey-tops/unisex-feminist-logo-t-shirt.html?dwvar_unisex-feminist-
logo-t-shirt_color=Grey Accessed: 20/10/2014
Willimese, A. (2015) Fashion Week Paris: Is Chanel’s Stage for Feminism Sincere?, Great Body and Skin: News Supplement, Available: http://greatbodyskin.com/fashion-
week-paris-is-chanels-stage-for-feminism-sincere/ Accessed: 21/04/2015
Wilson, E. (1985) Adorned in Dreams: Fashion and Modernity, Virago Press: London
Woolf, V., (1999) The Complete Works of Virginia Woolf,Delphi Classics: Canada
Wolf, N. (1990) The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty are used against Women, London: Vintage
Wong, K. (2003). Pranks and Fake Porn: Doing feminism my way, In (Eds.) Dicker, R., & Piepmeier, A., Catching a Wave: Reclaiming Feminism for the 21st Century,
Northeastern University Press: Boston
Yim, D. (2011) Wearing Your Values on Your Sleeve, in Fashion – Philosophy for Everyone: Thinking with Style, Edited by Wolfendale, J. & Kennet, J. (2011) Oxford:
Blackwell
Young, I.M. (1990) “Women Recovering Our Clothes” in Young I.M. Throwing Like a Girl and Other Essays in Feminist Philosophy and Social Theory, Bloomington: University
Press
Yim, D., (2011) Wearing Your Values on Your Sleeve, in (Ed.) Wolfendale, J., & Kennet, J., (2011) Fashion Philosophy for Everyone, Blackwell: Oxford

Appendices:
Appendix 1:
Appendix 2:

Appendix 3:

TO GET YOUR ASSIGNMENTS DONE AT A CHEAPER PRICE, PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH US NOW.